Skip to main content

A critical analysis of the HIV-T4-cell-AIDS hypothesis

  • Chapter
AIDS: Virus- or Drug Induced?

Abstract

The data generally accepted as proving the HIV theory of AIDS, HIV cytopathy, destruction of T4 lymphocytes, and the relationship between T4 cells, HIV and the acquired immune deficiency clinical syndrome are critically evaluated. It is concluded these data do not prove that HIV preferentially destroys T4 cells or has any cytopathic effects, nor do they demonstrate that T4 cells are preferentially destroyed in AIDS patients, or that T4 cell destruction and HIV are either necessary or sufficient prerequisites for the development of the clinical syndrome.

Knowledge is one. Its division into subjects is a concession to human weakness.

Halford John Mackinder

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Aaronson, S.A., G.J. Todaro and E.M. Scholnick, 1971. Induction of murine C-type viruses from clonal lines of virus-free BALB/3T3 cells. Science 174: 157–159.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Acres, R.B., P.J. Conlon, D.Y. Mochizuki and B. Gallis, 1986. Rapid phosphorylation and modulation of the T4 antigen on cloned helper T cells induced by phorbol myristate acetate or antigen. J. Biol. Chem. 261: 16210–16214.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adleman, L.M. and D. Wofsy, 1993. T-cell homeostasis: Implications in HIV infection. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6: 144–152.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Afrasiabi, R., R.T. Mitsuyasu, P. Nishanian, K. Schwartz and J.L. Fahey, 1986. Characterization of a distinct subgroup of high-risk persons with Kaposi’s sarcoma and good prognosis who present with normal T4 cell number and T4: T8 ratio and negative HTLV-III/LAV serologic test results. Am. J. Med. 81: 969–973.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Albert, J., P.O. Pehrson, S.Schulman, C. Hakansson, G.B. Lovhagen, O. Berglund, S. Beckman and E.M. Fenyo, 1988. HIV isolation and antigen detection in infected individuals and their seronegative sexual partners. AIDS 2: 107–111.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alejandro, M., P. Volkow, E. Verastegui, S. Lazo de la Vega, M. Kato, P. Sanchez, J. Guarner, G. Gorodezky & A. Meneses, 1991. Malignancies associated with HIV-1 infection in mexico, Volume 1, pp. 289 in VIlth International Conference on AIDS, Florence.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ameisen, J. & A. Capron, 1991. Cell dysfunction and depletion in AIDS: the programmed cell death hypothesis. Immunol. Today 12: 102–105.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barré-Sinoussi, F. et al., 1983. Isolation of a T-lymphotrophic retro-virus from a patient at risk for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Science 220: 868–871.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beral, V., T.A. Peterman, R.L. Berkelman & H.W. Jaffe, 1990. Kaposi’s sarcoma among persons with AIDS: a sexually transmitted infection? Lancet 335: 123–128.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Birch, R.E., A.K. Rosenthal & S.H. Polmar, 1982. Pharmacological modification of immunoregulatory T lymphocytes II. Modulation of T lymphocyte cell surface characteristics. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 48: 231–238.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brettle, R.P., S.M. Gore, A.G. Bird & A.J. McNeil, 1993. Clinical and epidemiological implications for the Centers for Disease Control/World Health Organization reclassification of AIDS cases. AIDS 7: 531–539.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brun-Vezinet, F, F Barre-Sinoussi, A.G. Saimot, D. Christol, C. Rouzioux, D. Klatzmann, W. Rozenbaum, J.C. Gluck-mann & J.C. Chermann, 1984. Detection of IgG antibodies to lymphadenopathy-associated virus in patients with AIDS or lymphadenopathy syndrome. Lancet I: 1253–1256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, D.S., 1989. Laboratory diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine 9: 369–392.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, G.F., F.L. Battye & G. Goldstein, 1982. Surface antigen changes occurring in short-term cultures of activated human T lymphocytes: Analysis by flow cytometry. Cell. Immunol. 71: 12–26.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Calabrese, L.H., 1988. Autoimmune manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Clin. Lab. Med. 8: 269–279.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cantor, H. & E.A. Boyse, 1977. Regulation of cellular and humoral responses by T-cell subclasses. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 41: 23–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capon, D.J. & Ward, R.H.R., 1991. The CD4-gp120 interaction and AIDS pathogenesis. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 9: 649–678.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CDC, 1982. Update on Kaposi’s sarcoma and opportunistic infections in previously healthy persons–United States. MMWR 31: 294–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC, 1992. 1993 Revised classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adults. MMWR 41: 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC, 1992. Unexplained CD4+ T-lymphocyte depletion in persons without evident HIV infection–United States. MMWR 41: 541–545.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, H. & G. Delespresse, 1986. Human cord blood suppressor T lymphocytes II. Characterization of inducer suppressor cells. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. Microbial. 11: 39–43.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chiodi, F, J. Albert, E. Olausson, et al., 1988. Isolation frequency of human immunodeficiency virus from cerebrospinal fluid and blood of patients with varying severity of HIV infection. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 4: 351–358.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clyod, M.W. & B.E. Moore, 1990. Spectrum of biological properties of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) isolates. Virol. 174: 103–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., 1992. Searching for markers on the AIDS trail. Science 258: 388–390.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., 1993. Unlikely recruit: Andrew Leigh Brown. Science 260: 1264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J.J. & R.C. Duke, 1984. Glucocorticoid activation of a calcium-dependent endonuclease in thymocyte nuclei leads to cell death. J. Immunol. 132: 38–42.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Collman, R., N.F. Hassan, R. Walker, B. Godfrey, J. Cutilli, J.C. Hastings, H. Friedman, S.D. Douglas & N. Nathanson, 1989. Infection of monocyte-derived macrophages with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1), J. Exp. Med. 170: 1149–1163.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conway, B., 1990. Detection of HIV-1 by PCR in clinical specimens. pp. 40–45, in Techniques in HIV Research, edited by A. Aldovini and B.D. Walker, Macmillan, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Defer, C., H. Agut & A. Garbarg-Chenon, 1992. Multicentre quality control of polymerase chain reaction for detection of HIV DNA. AIDS 6: 659–663.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D.C., S.R. Friedman, M. Marmor, D. Mildvan, S. Yancovitz, J.L. Sotheran, J. Wenston & S. Beatrice, 1993. CD4 lymphocytopenia among injecting drug users in New York City. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6: 820–822.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Detels, R., P.A. English, J.V. Giorgi, B.R. Visscher, J.L. Fahey, J.M.G. Taylor, J.P. Dudley, P. Nishanian, A. Munoz, J.P. Phair, B.F. Polk & C.R. Rinaldo, 1988. Patterns of CD4+ cell changes after HIV-1 infection indicate the existence of a codeterminant of AIDS. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 1: 390–395.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dickover, R.E., R.M. Donovan, E. Goldstein, S. Dandekar, C.E. Bush & J.R. Carlson, 1990. Quantitation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus DNA by using the Polymerase Chain Reaction. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28: 2130–2133.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Don, M.M., G. Ablett, C.J. Bishop, P.G. Bundesen, K.J. Donald, J. Searle & J.F.R. Kerr, 1977. Death of cells by apoptosis following attachment of specifically allergized lymphocytes in vitro. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 55: 407–417.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Donahoe, R.M., C. Bueso-Ramos, F Donahoe, J.J. Madden, A. Falek, J.K.A. Nicholson & P. Bokos, 1987. Mechanistic implications of the findings that opiates and other drugs of abuse moderate T-cell surface receptors and antigenic markers. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 496: 711–721.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drew, W.L., J. Mills, J. Levy, J. Dylewski, C. Casavant, A.J. Ammann, H. Brodie & T. Merigan, 1985. Cytomegalic infection and abnormal T-lymphocyte subset ratios in homosexual men. Ann. Int. Med. 103: 61–63.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duesberg, P.H., 1987. Retroviruses as carcinogens and pathogens: Expectations and reality. Cancer Res. 47: 1199–1220.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duesberg, P.H., 1992. AIDS acquired by drug consumption and other noncontagious risk factors. Pharmac. Ther. 55: 201–277.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Essex, M., J. Allan, P. Kanki, M.F. McLane, G. Malone, L. Kitchen & T.H. Lee, 1985. Antigens of human T-lymphotrophic virus type Illllymphadenopathy associated virus. Ann. Int. Med. 103: 700–703.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fauci, A.S., 1988. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Infectivity and mechanisms of pathogenesis. Science 239: 617–622.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, S.B., M. Sexton, J.D. Glenn & D.P. Lokkingbill, 1989. Immunosuppression in men with Bowenoid Papulosis. Arch. Dermatol. 125: 651–654.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Felix, D.H., K. Watret, D. Wray & J.C. Southam, 1992. Hairy leukoplakia in an HIV-negative, nonimmunosuppressed patient. Oral Surg. Oral. Med. Oral. Pathol. 74: 563–566.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, A.G., E. Collati, L. Ratner, R.C. Gallo & F Wong-Staal, 1985. A molecular clone of HTLV-III with biological activity. Nature 316: 262–265.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, C.H., D. Kotler, A. Tierney, C.S. Wilson & A.S. Fauci, 1989. Detection of HIV-1 RNA in the lamina propria of patients with AIDS and gastrointestinal disease. J. Infect. Dis. 159: 467–471.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gallo, R.C., 1986. The first human retrovirus. Sci. Am. 255: 78–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallo, R.C., P.S. Sarin, B. Kramarsky, Z. Salahuddin, P. Markham & M. Popovic, 1986. First isolation of HTLV-III. Nature 321: 119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallo, R.C., G.M. Shaw & P.D. Markham, 1985. The etiology of AIDS, pp. in AIDS etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention, 1st Edition, edited by V.T. DeVita, S. Hellman and S.A. Rosenberg, J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gazdar, A.F. et al., 1980. Mitogen requirements for the in vitropropagation of cutaneous T-cell lymphomas. Blood 55: 409–417.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Genesca, J., B.W. Jett, J.S. Epstein et al., 1989. What do Western Blot indeterminate patterns for Human Immunodeficiency Virus mean in EIA-negative blood donors? Lancet II: 1023–1025.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gill, P.S., C. Loureiro, M. Bernstein-Singer, M.U. Rarick, F Sattler & A.M. Levine, 1989. Clinical effect of glucocorticoids on Kaposi’s sarcoma related to the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Ann. Int. Med. 110: 937–940.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gougeon, M.-L. & L. Montagnier, 1993. Apoptosis in AIDS. Science 260: 1269–1270.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grady, R.W., A.N. Akbar, P.J. Giardina, M.W. Hilgartner & M. De Sousa, 1985. Disproportionate lymphoid cell subsets in thalassaemia major: the relative contributions of transfusion and splenectomy. Br. J. Haematol. 59: 713–724.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Groux, H., D. Monte, J.-M. Bourrez, A. Capron & J.-C. Ameisen, 1991. A mechanism for CD4+ T-cell dysfunction and depletion in AIDS: activation-induced programmed cell death by apoptosis. C.R. Acad. Sci. 312: 599–606.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Groux, H., G. Torpier, D. Monte, Y. Mouton, A. Capron & J.-C. Ameisen, 1992. Activation-induced death by apoptosis in CD4+ T cells from Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected asymptomatic individuals. J. Exp. Med. 175: 331–340.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, L.E. et al., Direct identification of class II histocompatibility DR proteins in preparations of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type III. J. Virol. 61: 629–632.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henin, Y., L. Mandelbrot, R. Henrion, R. Pradinaud, J.P. Coulaud & L. Montagnier, 1993. Virus excretion in the cervicovaginal secretions of pregnant and nonpregnant HIV-infected women. J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. 6: 72–75.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hersey, P., M. Bradley, E. Hasic, G. Haran, A. Edwards & W.H. McCarthy, 1983. Immunological effects of solarium exposure. Lancet I: 545–548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch, M.S., S.M. Phillips & C. Solnik, 1972. Activation of leukemia viruses by graft-versus-host and mixed lymphocyte recations in vitro. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 69: 1069–1072.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hishida, O., E. Ido, T. Igarashi, M. Hayami, A. Myazaki, N.K. Ayisi & M. Osei-Kwasi, 1992. Clinically diagnosed AIDS cases without evident association with HIV type 1 and 2 infections in Ghana. Lancet 340: 971–972.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, D., 1993. Would confirmatory retesting of CD4+ cells to verify AIDS status be too expensive ? J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6: 537–539.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, D.R., N.M.H. Graham, B. Chen, J.M.G. Taylor, J. Phair, S.Y.J. Zhou & A. Munoz, 1992. Effect of CD4+ cell count measurement variability in staging HIV-1 infection. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 5: 794–802.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, D.R., A.J. Saah, H. Bacellar, R. Murphy, B. Visscher, R. Anderson & R.A. Kaslow, 1993. Signs and symptoms of `asymptomatic’ HIV-1 infection in homosexual men. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6: 66–71.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horwitz, M.S., M.T. Boyce-Janino & A.J. Fanas, 1992. Novel human endogenous sequences related to human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Virol. 66: 2170–2179.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoxie, J.A., D.M. Matthews, K.J. Callahan, D.L. Cassel & R.A. Cooper, 1986. Transient modulation and internalization of T4 antigen induced by phorbol esters. J. Immunol. 137: 1194–1201.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoxie, J.S., B.S. Haggarty, J.L. Rackowski, N. Pillsbury & J.A. Levy, 1985. Persistent noncytopathicinfection of normal human T lymphocytes with AIDS-associated retrovirus. Science 229: 1400–1402.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, J.L., D.M. Libby, R.A. Winters, D.M. Gelmont, E.D. Fried, B.J. Hartman & J. Laurence, 1991. A cluster of Pneumocystic Carinnipneumonia in adults without predisposing illnesses. NEJM 324: 246–250.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jandinski, J., H. Cantor, T. Tadakuma, D.L. Peavy & C.W. Pierce, 1976. Separation of helper T cells from suppressor T cells expressing different Ly components. J. Exp. Med. 143: 1382–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jason, J.M., J.S. McDougal, G. Dixon, D.N. Lawrence, M.S. Kennedy, M. Hilgartner, L. Aledort & B.L. Evatt, 1986. HTLVIII/LAV antibody and immune status of household contacts and sexual partners of persons with hemophilia. JAMA 255: 212–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jewell, S.A., G. Bellomo, H. Thor, S. Orrenius & M.T. Smith, 1982. Bleb formation in hepatocytes during drug metabolism is caused by disturbances in thiol and calcium ion homeostatis. Science 217: 1257–1258.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kates, C.P., J.R. Murren, R.A. Torres & J.A. Crocco, 1987. Early predictors of in-hospital mortality for Pneumocystis cariniipneumonia in the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Arch. Intern. Med. 147: 1413–1417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaslow, R.A., J.P. Phair, H.B. Freidman, D. Lyter, R.E. Solomon, J. Dudley, F Polk & W. Blackwelder, 1987. Infection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus: clinical manifestations and their relationship to immune deficiency. Ann. Int. Med. 107: 474–480.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kazazi, F., J.-M. Mathijs, P. Foley & A.L. Cunningham, 1989. Variations in CD4 expression by human monocytes and macrophages and their relationship to infection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. J. Gen. Virol. 70: 2661–2672.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kempf, R.A. & M.S. Mitchell, 1985. Effects of chemotherapeutic agents on the immune response. II. Cancer Invest. 3: 23–33.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, J.F.R. & J. Searle, 1972. A suggested explanation for the paradoxically slow growth rate of basal-cell carcinomas that contain numerous mitotic figures. J. Pathol. 107: 41–45.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, C.M., R.S. Schulof, A.L. Goldstein, P.H. Naylor, N.L. Luban, J.F. Kelleher & G.H. Reaman, 1983. Abnormal T-lymphocyte subpopulations associated with transfusions of blood-derived products. Lancet I: 991–992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinlen, L.J., 1982. Immunosuppressive therapy and cancer. Cancer Surv. 1: 565–581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klatzmann, D. et al., 1984a. Selective tropism of Lymphadenopathy Associated Virus (LAV) for helper-inducer T-lymphocytes. Science 225: 59–63.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klatzmann, D. et al., 1984b. T-lymphocytes T4 molecule behaves as the receptor for human retrovirus LAV. Nature 312: 767–768.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klatzmann, D. & L. Montagnier, 1986. Approaches to AIDS therapy. Nature 319: 10–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lamoureux, G., L. Davignon, R. Turcotte, M. Laverière, E. Mankiewicz & M.C. Walker, 1987. Is prior Mycobacterium infection a common predisposing factor to AIDS in Haitians and Africans. Ann. Inst. Pasteur/Immunol. 138: 521–529.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laurence, J., F.P. Siegal, E. Shattner, I.H. Gelman & S. Morse, 1992. Acquired immunodeficiency without evidence of infection with human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2. Lancet 340: 273–274.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laurent-Crawford, A.G., B. Krust, S. Muller, Y. Rivière, M.-A. Rey Cuillé, J.-M. Béhet, L. Montagnier & A.G. Hovanessian, 1991. The cytopathic effect of HIV is associated with apoptosis. Virol. 185: 829–839.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laurent-Crawford, A.G., Y. Rivière, L. Montagnier & A. Hovanessian, 1992. Envelope glycoprotein gene expression mediates syncytia formation and apoptosis, Volume 2, pp. A265 in VIIIth International Conference on AIDS, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Learmont, J. et al., 1992. Long-term symptomless HIV-1 infection in recipients of blood produced from a single donor. Lancet 340: 863–867.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemaitre, M., D. Guetard, Y. Henin, L. Montagnier & A. Zed-al, 1990. Protective activity of tetracycline analogs against the cytopathic effect of the human immunodeficiency viruses in CEM cells. Res. Virol. 141: 5–16.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemasters, J.J., J. DiGuiseppi, A.-L. Nieminen & B. Herman, 1987. Blebbing, free Ca2+ and mitochondrial membrane potential preceding cell death in hepatocytes. Nature 325: 78–81.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levacher, M., F. Huylstaert, S. Tallet, S. Ullery, J.J. Pocidalo & B.A. Bach, 1992. The significance of activation markers on CD8 lymphocytes in human immunodeficiency syndrome: staging and prognostic value. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 90: 376–382.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levinson, S.S. & G.A. Denys, 1988. Strengths and weaknesses in methods for identifying the causative agent(s) of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences 26: 277–301.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Long, A.A., P. Komminoth & H.J. Wolfe, 1992. Detection of HIV provirus by in situpolymerase chain reaction. NEJM 327: 1529–1530.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Löwer, R. & J. Löwer, 1993. Endogenous retrovirus sequences in human teratocarcinoma cell lines. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6: 738.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ludlam, C.A., C.M. Steel, R. Cheingsong-Popov, R., D.B.L. McClelland, J. Tucker, R.S. Tedder, R.A. Weiss, I. Philip & R.J. Prescott, 1985. Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type-111 (HTLVIII) infection in seronegative haemophiliacs after transfusion of factor VIII. Lancet II: 233–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, G.D., 1988. Serological diagnosis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection by Western Blot testing. JAMA 260: 674–679.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malone, J.L., T.E. Simms, G.C. Gray, K.F. Wagner, J.R. Burge & D.S. Burke, 1990. Sources of variability in repeated T-helper lymphocyte counts from Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-infected patients: Total lymphocyte count fluctuations and diurnal cycle are important. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 3: 144–151.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Margolick, J.B., A.D. Donnenbery, A. Munoz, L.P. Park, K.D. Bauer, J.V. Giorgi, J. Ferbas & A.J. Saah, 1993. Changes in T and non-T lymphocyte subsets following seroconversion to HIV-1: Stable CD3+ and declining CD3-populations suggest regulatory responses linked to loss of CD4 lymphocytes. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6: 153–161.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, E., P. Domingo & A. Marcos, 1991. Pneumococcal bac-teraemia in immunocompetent adults. Lancet 337: 57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masur, H., F.P. Ognibene, R. Yarchona, J.H. Shelhamer, B.F. Baird, W. Travers, A.F. Suffredini, L. Deyton, J.A. Kovacs, J. Falloon, R. Davey, M. Polis, J. Metcalf, M. Baseler, R. Wesley, V.J. Gill, A.S. Fauci & H. Clifford Lane, 1989. CD4 counts as predictors of opportunistic pneumonias in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection. Ann. Int. Med. 111: 223–231.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matsiota, P. et al., 1987. Detection of natural autoantibodies in the serum of anti-HIV positive-individuals. Ann. Inst. Pasteur/Immunol. 138: 223–233.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McConkey, D.J., P. Hartzell, J.F. Amador-Pérez, S. Orrenius & M. Jondal, 1989. Calcium-dependent killing of immature thymocytes by stimulation via the CD3/T cell receptor complex. J. Immunol. 143: 1801–1806.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McConkey, D.J., P. Harzell, S.K. Duddy, H. HÃ¥kansson & S. Orrenius, 1988.2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin kills immature thymocytes by Cat+-mediated endonuclease activation. Science 242: 256–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendenhall, C.L., G.A. Roselle, C.J. Grossman, S.D. Rouster & R.E. Weener, 1986. False positive tests for HTLV-III antibodies in alcoholic patients with hepatitis. NEJM 314: 921–922.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyaard, L., S.A. Otto, R.R. Jonker, M.J. Mijnster, R.P.M. Keet & F. Miedema, 1992. Programmed death of T cells in HIV-1 infection. Science 257: 217–219.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Minassian, A., M. Merges, R. Garrity, K. Nagashima, W.P. Tsai, S. Oroszlan & P. Nara, 1993. Induction of a SMRV-like retrovirus from a human T-cell line after treatment with the mutagen ethylmethyl-sulfonate. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6: 738.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montagnier, L., 1985. Lymphadenopathy-Associated Virus: From molecular biology to pathogenicity. Ann. Int. Med. 103: 689–693.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, J.P. & D.D. Ho, 1992. HIV-negative AIDS. Lancet 340: 475.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, R.G., A.D. Hargreaves, E. Duvall & A.H. Wyllie, 1984. Hormone-induced cell death. Am. J. Pathol. 115: 426–435.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Natoli, C., F Dianzani, E Mazzotta, E. Balocchini, P. Peirotti, G. Antonelli & S. Icaobelli, 1993. 90K protein: A new predictor marker of disease progression in Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6: 370–375.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolosi, A., M. Musico, A. Saracco, S. Molinari, N. Ziliani & A. Lazzarin, 1990. Incidence and risk factors of HIV infection: A prospective study of seronegative drug users from Milan and Northern Italy, 1987–1989. Epidemiology I: 453–459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Novick, D.M., D.J.C. Brown, A.S.F. Lok, J.C. Lloyd & H.C. Thomas, 1986. Influence of sexual preference and chronic hepatitis B virus infection on T lymphocyte subsets, natural killer activity, and suppressor cell activity. J. Hepatol. 3: 363–370.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oxford, J., 1980. Immunomodulatingeffects of antimicrobial agents. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 6: 691–699.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pankhurst, C. & M. Peakman, 1989. Reduced CD4+ T cells and severe oral candidiasis in absence of HIV infection. Lancet I: 672.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pantaleo, G., C. Graziosi & A.S. Fauci, 1993. The immunopathogenesis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. NEJM 328: 327–335.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., 1982. A mitotic theory. J. Theor. Biol. 96: 741–758.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., 1988. Reappraisal of AIDS: Is the oxidation caused by the risk factors the primary cause? Med. Hypotheses 25: 151–162.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., B. Hedland-Thomas, D.A. Causer & A.P. Dufty, 1989a. An alternative explanation for the radiosensitization of AIDS patients. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 17: 695–697.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., N. Knuckey, A. Dufty & R. Fox, 1985. Evidence that the redox state has a role in muscular contraction and relaxation. Physiol. Chem. Phys. Med. N.M.R. 17: 407–411.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., N.W. Kuckey, A. Dufty & R.A. Fox, 1989b. Importance of the redox state in vasoconstriction induced by adrenaline and serotinin. Cardiovasc. Res. 23: 662–665.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., Turner, V.F. & J.M. Papadimitriou, 1992a. Kaposi’s sarcoma and HIV. Med. Hypotheses 39: 22–29.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., V.F. Turner & J.M. Papadimitriou, 1992b. Oxidative stress, HIV and AIDS. Res. Immunol. 143: 145–148.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., V.F. Turner & J.M. Papadimitriou, 1993a. Is a positive Western Blot proof of HIV infection? Bio/Technology 11: 696–707.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., V.F. Turner & J.M. Papadimitriou, 1993b. Has Gallo proven the role of HIV in AIDS? Emerg. Med. [Australia] 5: 113–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pellicciari, C., Y. Hosokawa, M. Fukada & M.G.M. Romanini, 1981 Cytofluormetric study of nuclear sulphydryl and disulphide groups during sperm maturation in the mouse. J. Reprod. Fertil. 68: 371–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phair, J., L. Jacobson, R. Detals, C. Rinaldo, A. Saah, L. Schrager & A. Munoz, 1992. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome occurring within 5 years of infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type-1: The multicenter AIDS cohort study. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 5: 490–496.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poiesz, B. et al., 1980. T-cell lines established from human Tlymphocytic neoplasias by direct response to T-cell growth factor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 77: 6815–6819.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popovic, M., M.G. Sarngadharan & E. Read, 1984. Detection, isolation, and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS. Science 224: 497–500.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Redfield, R.R. & D.S. Burke, 1988. HIV infection: The clinical picture. Sci. Am. 259: 70–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, D.J., 1990. Status of calcium and thiols in hepatocellular injury by oxidative stress. Seminars in Liver Disease 10: 285–292.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reinherz, E.L., R. Geha, M.E. Wohl, C. Morimoto, F.S. Rosen & S.F. Schlossman, 1981. Immunodeficiency associated with loss of T4+ inducer T-cell function. NEJM 304: 811–816.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reinherz, E.L., P.C. Kung, G. Goldstein & S.F. Schlossman, 1979. Separation of functional subsets of human T cells by a monoclonal antibody. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 76: 4061–4065.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reinherz, E.L., C. Morimoto, A.C. Penta & S.F. Schlossman, 1980. Regulation of B cell immunoglobulin secretion by functional subsets of T lymphocytes in man. Eur. J. Immunol. 10: 570–572.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reinherz, E.L. et al., 1980. The cellular basis for viral-induced immunodeficiency: analysis by monoclonal antibodies. J. Immunol. 125: 1269–1273.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • René, O., T. Dragic, O. Lopez, L. Herzenberg & L. Montagnier, 1992. An anti-oxidant prevents apoptosis and early cell death in lymphocytes from HIV infected individuals, Volume 22, p. A65 in VIIIth International Conference on AIDS, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rett, K., M. Wicklmayr, G.J. Dietze & K. Schwabing, 1988. Abnormal T-cell subsets in normal persons. NEJM 319: 1608–1609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, L.A., S.M. Forster & A.J. Pinching, 1989. IgD production and other lymphocyte functions in HIV infection: Immaturity and activation of B cells at different clinical stages. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 75: 7–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Root-Bernstein, R.S., 1993. Rethinking AIDS - The tragic cost of premature consensus. Macmillan, Inc., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, R.H., W.P. Carney, R.T. Schooley, R.B. Colvin, R.C. Burton, R.A. Hoffman, W.P. Hansen, A.B. Cosimi, P.S. Russell & M.S. Hirsch, 1981. The effect of infection of T lymphocyte subpopulations: a preliminary report. Int. J. Immunopharmac. 3: 307–312.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rubinstein, E., 1990. The untold study of HUT78. Science 248: 1499–1507.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Safai, B., H. Peralta, K. Menzies, H. Tizon, P. Roy, N. Romberg & S. Wolinsky, 1991. Kaposi’s sarcoma among HIV-seronegativehigh risk population, Volume I, pp. 78 in VIIth International Conference on AIDS, Florence.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scharff, O., B. Foder, O. Thastrup, B. Hofmann, J. Moller, LE Ryder, K.D. Jacobson, E. Langhoff, E. Dickmeiss, S.B. Christensen, P. Skinhoj & A. Svejaard, 1988. Effect of thapsigargin on cytoplasmic Ca2+ and proliferation of human lymphocytes in relation to AIDS. Biochim. Biophysica. Acta. 972: 257–264.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schellekens, P.T., M. Tersmette, M.T.L. Roos, R.P. Keet, F de Wolf, R.A. Coutinho & E Miedema, 1992. Biphasic rate to CD4+ cell count decline during progression to AIDS correlates with HIV-1 phenotype. AIDS 6: 665–669.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schulhafer, E.P., M.E. Grossman, G. Fagin & K.E. Bell, 1987. Steroid-induced Kaposi’s sarcoma in a patient with pre-AIDS. Am. J. Med. 82: 313–317.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seligmann, M., S. Aractingi, E. Oksenhendler, C. Rabain, E Ferchal & G. Connot, 1991. CD4+ lymphocytopenia without HIV in patient with cryptococcal disease. Lancet 337: 57–58.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sefton, B., 1974. Rifampicin and immunosuppression. Lancet I: 172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, M.S., F Wong-Staal & R.C. Gallo, 1988. Etiology of AIDS: virology, molecular biology, and evolution of human immunodeficiency viruses. pp. in AIDS Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention, 2nd Edition, edited by V.T. De Vita, S. Hellman and S.A. Rosenberg, J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sirianni, M.C., E Pandolfi, P. Verani, E. Guerra, G.B. Rossi & F. Aiuti, 1991. CD4 defect without HIV in patients with opportunistic infections of Kaposi’s sarcoma. AIDS 7: 130–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stagno, S., L.L. Pifer, W.T. Hughes, D.M. Brasfield & R.E. Tiller, 1980. Pneumocystic carinii pneumonitis in young immunocompetent infants. Pediatrics 66: 56–62.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, S.K. & A.S. Fauci, 1993. T cell homeostatis in HIV infection: Part of the solution, or part of the problem ? J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6: 142–143.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Terai, C., R.S. Kornbluth, D. Pauza, D.D. Richmann & D.A. Carson, 1991. Apoptosis as a mechanism of cell death in cultured T lymphoblasts acutely infected with HIV-1. J. Clin. Invest. 87: 1710–1715.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, H.C., 1981. T cell subsets in patients with acute and chronic HBV infection, primary biliary cirhosis and alcohol induced liver disease. Int. J. Immunopharmac. 3: 301–305.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tijhuis, G.J. et al., 1993. AIDS without detectable HIV: A case report. Am. J. Med. 94: 442–443.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Todaro, G.J., R.E. Benveniste & C.J. Sherr, 1976. Interspecies transfer of RNA tumour virus genes: Implications for the search for ‘human’ type C viruses. pp. 369–384, in Aminal Virology, edited by D. Baltimore, A.S. Huang and C.S. Fox, Academic Press Inc., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toyoshima, K. & P.K. Vogt, 1969. Enhancement and inhibition of avian sarcoma viruses by polycations and polyanions. Virol. 38: 414–426.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trimm, J.L., G. Salama & J.J. Abramson, 1986. Sulthydryl oxidation induces rapid calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles. J. Biol. Chem. 261: 16092–16098.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsoukas, C., F Gervais, J. Shuster, P. Gold, M. O’Shaughnessy & M. Robert-Guroff, 1984. Association of HTLV-III antibodies and cellular immune status of hemophiliacs. NEJM 311: 1514–1515.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, V.F., 1990. Reducing agents and AIDS - Why are we waiting? Med. J. Aust. 153: 502.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ushijima, H., S. Unten, H. Honma, H. Tsuchie, T. Kitamura, B.E. Weiler & W.E.G. Müller, 1992. Effect of serum components on syncytium formation and virus production by cells infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus in vitro. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 8: 513–520.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Varmus, H. & P. Brown, 1989. Retroviruses. pp. 53–1087, in Mobile DNA, edited by D.E. Berg and M.M. Howe, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vento, S., G. Di Perri, T. Garofano, E. Concia & D. Bassetti, 1993. Pneumocystis carinni pneumonia during primary HIV-1 infection. Lancet 342: 24–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vilmer, E., C. Rouzioux, F. Vezinet Brun, A. Fischer, J.C. Chermann, E Barré-Sinoussi, C. Gazengel, C. Dauguet, P. Manigne & C. Griscelli, 1984. Isolation of new lymphotropic retrovirus from two siblings with Haemophilia B, one with AIDS. Lancet I: 753–757.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volsky, D.J., Y.T. Wu, M. Stevenson, S. Dewhurst, E Sinangil, F. Merino, L. Rodirguez, G. Godoy, 1986. Antibodies to HTLVIII/LAV in Venezuelan patients with acute malarial syndromes. NEJM 316: 647–648.

    Google Scholar 

  • von Briesen, H., W.B. Becker, K. Henco, E.B. Helm, H.R. Gelderblom, H.D. Brede & H. Wübsamen-Waigmann, 1987. Isolation frequency and growth properties of HIV-variants: Multiple simultaneous variants in a patient demonstrated by molecular cloning. J. Med. Virol. 23: 51–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waldman, T.A., S. Broder, R.M. Blaese, M. Durm, M. Blackman & W. Strober, 1974. Role of suppressor T cells in pathogenesis of common variable hypogammaglobulinaemia.Lancet II: 609–613.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, D.A. & J.S. Lilleyman, 1983. Pseudo-AIDS. Lancet II: 344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weigle, K.A., C.V. Sumaya & M.M. Montiel, 1983. Changes in T-lymphocyte subsets during childhood Epstein-Barr virus infec-tious mononucleosis. J. Clin. Immunol. 3: 151–155.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R., N. Teich, H. Varmus & J. Coffin, Eds., 1982. RNA Tumor Viruses. Cold Spring Harbour, New York, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R.A., 1993. How does HIV cause AIDS? Science 260: 127–31279.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO, 1986. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) WHO/CDC case definition for AIDS. Wkly. Epidem. Rec. 61: 69–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R.C., F.T. Koster & K.A. Kilpatrick, 1983. Alterations in lymphocyte cell surface markers during various human infections. Am. J. Med. 75: 807–816.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wofsy, D. & W.E. Seaman, 1985. Successful treatment of autoimmunity in NZB/NSW F1 mice with monoclonal antibody to L3T4. J. Exp. Med. 161: 378–391.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wyllie, A.H., J.F.R. Kerr & Currie, A.R., 1980. Cell death: The - significance of apoptosis. Internat. Rev. Cytol. 68: 251–306.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wyllie, A.H., R.G. Morris, A.L. Smith & D. Dunlop, 1984. Chromatin cleavage in apoptosis: Association with condensed chromatin morphology and dependence on macromolecularsynthesis. J. Pathol. 142: 67–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zagury, D., J. Bernard, R. Leonard, R. Cheynier, M. Feldman, P.S. Sarin & R.C. Gallo, 1986. Long-term cultures of HTLV III-infected T cells: A model of cytopathology of T-cell depletion in AIDS. Science 231: 850–853.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zagury, D., J. Bernard, D.A. Morgan, M. Fouchard & M. Feldman, 1983. Phenotypic diversity within clones of human normal T cells. Int. J. Cancer 31: 705–710.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Peter H. Duesberg

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., Turner, V.F., Papadimitriou, J.M., Causer, D., Hedland-Thomas, B., Page, B.A.P. (1996). A critical analysis of the HIV-T4-cell-AIDS hypothesis. In: Duesberg, P.H. (eds) AIDS: Virus- or Drug Induced?. Contemporary Issues in Genetics and Evolution, vol 5. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1651-7_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1651-7_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-3961-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-009-1651-7

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics