Skip to main content

Abstract

The uremic patient suffers from a syndrome that resembles poisoning by an ingested toxin. The clinical picture is well known and consists of a definite number of symptoms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Prevost JL, Dumas JA: Examen du sang et de son action dans les divers phénomènes de la vie. (Examination of the blood and its action in the different phenomena of life.) Ann Chim Phys 23: 90, 1921

    Google Scholar 

  2. Gordon A, Bergström J, Fürst F, Zimmerman L: Separation and characterization of uremic metabolites in biologic fluids: a screening approach to the definition of uremic toxins. Kidney Int 7 (Suppl 2): S45, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  3. Knochel JP: Pathogenesis of the uremic syndrome. Postgraduate Med 64: 88, 1978

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Merrill JP, Hampers CL: Uremia. N Engl J Med 282: 953, 1970

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Giovannetti S, Berlyne GM: An outline of the uremic syndrome. Nephron 14: 119, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Teschan PE: The presentation of the patient with chronic renal failure, in End-Stage Renal Disease, edited by Stone WJ, Rabin PL, New York, Academic Press 1983, p 31

    Google Scholar 

  7. Giovannetti S, Biagini M, Balestri PL, Navalesi R, Giagnoni P, De Matteis A, Ferro-milone P, Perfetti C.: Uraemia-like syndrome in dogs chronically intoxicated with methylguanidine and creatinine. Clin Sci 36: 445, 1969

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Johnson WJ, Hagge WW, Wagoner RD, Dinapoli RP, Rosevear JW: Effects of urea loading in patients with far-advanced renal failure. Mayo Clin Proc 47: 21, 1972

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Lowrie EG, Steinberg SM, Galen MA, Gagneux SA, Lazarus JM, Gottlieb MN, Merrill JP: Factors in the dialysis regimen which contribute to alterations in the abnormalities of uremia. Kidney Int 10: 409, 1976

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Asaba H, Alvestrand A, Fürst P, Bergström J: Clinical implications of uremic middle molecules in regular hemodialysis patients. Clin Nephrol 19: 179, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Rockel A, Henneman H, Richwien D, Heidland A: Tyraminstimulierbares Puppillenerweiterungsvermögen - ein Parameter der autonomen Insuffizienz bei Urämie. (Pupillary reaction on tyramine - a parameter of uremic autonomic neuropathy.) Klin Wschr 54: 479, 1976

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Solders G, Persson A, Wilczek H: Autonomic system dysfunction and polyneuropathy in nondiabetic uremia. Transplantation 41: 616, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Briggs JD, Buchanan KD, Luke RC, Mac Kiddie MTM: Role of insulin in glucose intolerance in uraemia. Lancet 1: 462, 1967

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Teschan PE: Electroencephalographic and other neurophysiological abnormalities in uremia. Kidney Int 1 (Suppl 2): S210, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  15. Ringoir S, Van Landschoot N, De Smet R: Inhibition of phagocytosis by a middle molecular fraction from uremic ultrafiltrate. Op use Med Techn Lundensia 21: 13, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  16. Gutman RA, Huang AT: Inhibitor of marrow thymidine incorporation from sera of patients with uremia. Kidney Int 18: 715, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Ringoir SMG, Van Landschoot N, De Smet R: Inhibition of phagocytosis by a middle molecular fraction from ultrafiltrate. Clin Nephrol 13: 109, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Ota K, Sanaka T, Agishi T, Nakajima O: Influence of uremic middle molecules on blood cells. Artif Organs 4: 113, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Dzurik R, Spustova V, Cernacek P: Inhibitor of renal gluconeogenesis (IGN): additional physiological modulator in Biochemical Aspects of Renal Function, edited by Rose BD, Guder WG, Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1980, p 103

    Google Scholar 

  20. De Smet R, Van Landschoot N, Van Der Stiggel G, Ringoir S: Isotachophoretic pattern of LDH inhibiting fractions obtained from uremic ultrafiltrate by gel chromatography. Int J Artif Organs 6: 67, 1983

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Bazilinski N, Shaykh M, Dunea G, Mamdani B, Patel A, Ahmed S: Inhibition of platelet function by uremic middle molecules. Nephron 40: 423, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Navarro J, Grossetete MC, DeFrosne A, Touraine JL, Traeger J: Isolation of an immunosuppressive fraction in ultrafiltrate from uremic sera. Nephron 40: 396, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Lamperi S, Carozzi S: T lymphocytes, monocytes and erythropoiesis disorders in chronic renal failure. Nephron 39: 211, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Korz R, Naber A, Brunner H, Buschsieweke U, Essers U. Lymphozytentransformation und Autohämolyse unter Einwirkung höhermolekularer Urinmetabolite als potentielle Urämietoxine. (Effect of higher molecular weight urinary metabolites on lymphocyte transformation and autohemolysis.) Klin Wschr 53: 761, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Korz R, Naber A, Essers U: Spontane Lymphocytentransformation bei chronischer Niereninsuffizienz. (Spontaneous lymphocyte transformation in chronic renal insufficiency.) Klin Wschr 53: 21, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  26. Del Carmen Samaniego M, Nesse A, Arrizurieta De Muchnik E: Toxinas uremicas. (Uremic toxins.) Medicina (Buenos Aires) 44: 252, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  27. Newberry WM, Sanford JP: Defective cellular immunity in renal failure: depression of reactivity of lymphocytes to phytohemagglutin by renal failure serum. J Clin Invest 50: 1262, 1971

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Birkeland SA: Uremia as a state of imune defiency. Scand J Immunol 5: 107, 1976

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Kurz P, Kohler H, Meuer S, Hutteroth T, Meyer Zum Buschenfelde KH: Impaired cellular immune responses in chronic renal failure: evidence for a T-cell defect. Kidney Int 29: 1209, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Abiko T, Sekino H: Effects of two synthetic serum thymic factor analogues and four thymic factor fragments on the low E-rosette forming cells in patients with chronic renal failure. Chem Pharm Bull 30: 4448, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Henderson LW, Miller ME, Hamilton RW, Norman ME: Hemodialysis leukopenia and polymorph random mobility - a possible correlation. J Lab Clin Med 85: 191, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Lespier-Dexter LE, Guerra C, Ojeda W, Martinez-Maldonado M: Granulocyte adherence in uremia and hemodialysis. Nephron 24: 64, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Ritchey EE, Wallin JD, Sham SV: Chemiluminescence and superoxide anion production by leucocytes from chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 19: 349, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Nguyen AT, Lethias C, Zingraff J, Herbelin A, Naret C, Descamps-Latscha B: Hemodialysis membrane-induced activation of phagocyte oxidative metabolism detected in vivo and in vitro within microamounts of whole blood. Kidney Int 28: 158, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Rhee MS, Mac Goldrick MD, Meuwissen HJ: Serum factor from patients with chronic renal failure enhances polymorphonuclear oxidative metabolism. Nephron 42: 6, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Jorstad S, Smeby LC, Widerøe TE, Berg KJ: Transport of uremic toxins through conventional hemodialysis membranes. Clin Nephrol 12: 168, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Ringoir S, Van Looy L, Van De Heyning P, Leroux-Roels G: Impairment of phagocytic activity of macrophages as studied by the skin window test in patients on regular hemodialysis treatment. Clin Nephrol 4: 234, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Lamberts B, Brunnen H, Ochs HG, Spellerberg P, Heintz R: Effect of urine metabolites from healthy and uremic subjects on gluconeogenesis in slices of rat kidney cortex and liver. Clin Nephrol 6: 465, 1976

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Minkoff L, Gaertner G, Darab M, Mercier C, Levin ML: Inhibition of brain sodium-potassium ATPase in uremic rats. J Lab Clin Med 80: 71, 1972

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Kramer HJ, Backer A, Kruck F: Inhibition of intestinal (Na+-K+)-AT Pase in experimental uremia. Clin Chim Acta 50: 13, 1974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Wilkinson JH, Fujimoto Y, Senesky D, Ludwig GD: Nature of the inhibitors of lactate dehydrogenase in uremic dialysates. J Lab Clin Med 75: 109, 1970

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Fournier N, Gallice P, Crevat A, Murisasco A, Ducet G, Elsen R: Action on mitochondrial calcium metabolism of an ionophorous compound isolated from uremic plasma or normal urine. Artif Organs 9: 22, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Martinelli R, Rodrigues LEA, Machado AEC, Rocha M: The effect of acute uremia on liver mitochondrial activity. Nephron 17: 155, 1976

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Vergnes HA, Grozdea JD: A study of the selective inhibition by urea of neutrophil alkaline phosphatase isoenzymes. Enzyme 34: 45, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Rabkin R, Unterhalter SA, Duckworth WC: Effect of prolonged uremia on insulin metabolism by isolated liver and muscle. Kidney Int 16: 433, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Komidori K, Kamada T, Yamashita T, Harada R, Otsuji Y, Hashimoto S, Chuman Y, Otsuji S: Erythrocyte membrane fluidity decreased in uremic hemodialyzed patients. Nephron 40: 185, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Wallner SF, Vautrin RM: The anemia of chronic renal failure. Studies of iron transport in vitro. J Lab Clin Med 96: 67, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Wallner SF, Vautrin RM: The anemia of chronic renal failure: studies of the effect of organic solvent extraction of serum. J Lab Clin Med 92: 363, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Meytes D, Bogin E, Ma A, Dukex PP, Massry SG: Effect of parathyroid hormone on erythropoiesis. J Clin Invest 67: 1263, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Delwiche F, Segal GM, Eschbach JW, Adamson JW: Hematopoietic inhibitors in chronic renal failure: lack of in vitro specificity. Kidney Int 29: 641, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Bogin E, Massry SG, Levi J, Djaldetti M, Bristol G, Smith J: Effect of parathyroid hormone on osmotic fragility of human erythrocytes. J Clin Invest 69: 1017, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Malachi T, Bogin E, Gafter U, Levi J: Parathyroid hormone effect on the fragility of human young and old red blood cells in uremia. Nephron 42: 52, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Tanaka H, Umimoto K, Izumi N, Maekawa T, Kishimoto T, Maekawa M: Can hemodialysis remove the factor that suppresses platelet cyclo-oxygenase activity in uremic patients. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 31: 552, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Tanaka H, Umimoto K, Izumi N, Maekawa T, Kishimoto T, Maekawa M: Platelet cyclo-oxygenase in haemodialysis patients: what suppresses its activity. Proc Eur Dial Transplant Assoc Eur Ren Assoc 22: 250, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  55. Remuzzi G, Benigni A, Dodesini R, Schieppati A, Livio M, De Gaetano G, Day JS, Smith WL, Pinea E, Patrignani P, Patrono C: Reduced platelet thromboxane formation in uremia. Evidence for a functional cyclo-oxygenase defect. J Clin Invest 71: 762, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Tison P, Cernacek P, Silvanova E, Dzurik R: Uremic ‘toxins’ and blood platelet carbohydrate metabolism. Nephron 28: 192, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Funck-Brentano JL, Boudet J, Sausse A, Cueille G, Man NK: In vitro sural nerve test for the evaluation of middle molecule neurotoxicity in uraemia, in Technical Aspects of Renal Dialysis, edited by Frost TH, Tunbridge Wells, UK, Pitman Medical, 1978, p 256

    Google Scholar 

  58. Bogin E, Massry SG, Harary I: Effect of parathyroid hormone on rat heart cells. J Clin Invest 67: 1215, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Mann JFE, Jakobs KH, Riedel J, Ritz E: Reduced chronotropic responsiveness of the heart in experimental uremia. Am J Physiol 250: H846, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Defronzo RA, Smith D, Alvestrand A: Insulin action in uremia. Kidney Int 24 (Suppl 16): S102, 1983

    Google Scholar 

  61. Dzurik R, Spustova V, Gerykova M: Pathogenesis and consequences of the alteration of glucose metabolism in renal insufficiency. in, Uremic Toxins edited by Ringoir S, Vanholder R, Massry S, New York, Plenum Publ Co, 1987, p 105

    Google Scholar 

  62. Lockwood DH: The insulin resistance inducing factor, in Uremic Toxins, edited by Ringoir S, Vanholder R, Massry S, New York, Plenum Publ Co, 1987, p 97

    Google Scholar 

  63. Gambhir KK, Archer JA, Nerurkar SG, Cruz IA, Sanders M: Erythrocyte insulin receptors in chronic renal failure. Nephron 28: 4, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Reidenberg MM, Odar-Cederlöf I, Van Bahr C, Borga O, Sjoqvist F: Protein binding of diphenylhydantoin and des-methylimipramine in plasma from patients with poor renal function. N Engl J Med 285: 264, 1971

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Schoeman DW, Azarnoff DL: The alteration of plasma proteins in uremia as reflected in their ability to bind digitoxin and diphenylhydantoin. Pharmacology 7: 169, 1972

    Google Scholar 

  66. Olsen GD, Bennett WM, Porter GA: Morphine and Phenytoin binding to plasma proteins in renal and hepatic failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther 17: 677, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Depner TA, Gulyassy PF: Plasma protein binding in uremia: extraction and characterisation of an inhibitor. Kidney Int 18: 86, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Depner TA, Stanfel LA, Jarrard EA, Gulyassy PF: Impaired plasma phenytoin binding in uremia. Nephron 25: 231, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Kinniburgh DW, Boyd ND: Isolation of peptides from uremic plasma that inhibit phenytoin binding to normal plasma proteins. Clin Pharmacol Ther 30: 276, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Depner TA: Suppression of tubular anion transport by an inhibitor of serum protein binding in uremia. Kidney Int 20: 511, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Grossman SH, Davis D, Kitchell BB, Shand DG, Routledge PA: Diazepam and lidocaine plasma protein binding in renal disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther 31: 350, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Gulyassy PF, Bottini AT, Stanfel LA, Jarrard EA, Depner TA: Isolation and chemical identification of inhibitors of plasma ligand binding. Kidney Int 30: 391, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. MacNamara PJ, Lalka D, Gibaldi M: Endogenous accumulation products and serum protein binding in uremia. J Lab Clin Med 98: 730, 1981

    Google Scholar 

  74. Schoots A, Mikkers F, Cramers C, De Smet R, Ringoir S: Uremic toxins and the elusive middle molecules. Nephron 38: 1, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Contreras P, Later R, Navarro J, Touraine JL, Freyria AM, Traeger J: Molecules in the middle molecular weight range. Nephron 32: 193, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Rutten G, Schoots A, Vanholder R, Cramers C, Ringoir S: Organochloride pesticides of serum of dialyzed and non-dialyzed uremic patients. Nephron 48: 217, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Cornelis R, Ringoir S, Lameire N, Mees L, Hoste J: Blood bromine in uremic patients. Miner Electrolyte Metab 2: 186, 1979

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Bultitude FW, Newham SJ: Identification of some abnormal metabolites in plasma from uremic subjects. Clin Chem 21: 1329, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Fürst P, Bergström J, Gordon A, Johnson E, Zimmerman L: Separation of peptides of ‘middle’ molecular weight from biological fluids of patients with uremia. Kidney Int 1 (Suppl 2): S 272, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  80. Fürst P, Zimmerman L, Bergström J: Determination of endogenous middle molecules in normal and uremic body fluids. Clin Nephrol 5: 178, 1976

    Google Scholar 

  81. Oules R, Asaba H, Neuhauser M, Yahiel V, Gunnarson B, Bergström J: The removal of uremic small and middle molecules and free amino acids by carbon hemoperfusion. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 23: 583, 1977

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Ringoir S, De Smet R, Becaus I: Serum middle molecules in two different strategies (PAN-open and closed) of hemodialysis. Kidney Int 12: 152, 1977

    Google Scholar 

  83. Ringoir S, De Smet R, Becaus I: Serum middle molecules in different dialysis strategies, in Aktuelle Probleme der Dialyseverfahren und der Niereninsuffizienz, edited by von Dittrich P, Kopp K, Friedburg, Verlag Bindernagel, 1977, p 128

    Google Scholar 

  84. Oules R, Asaba H, Neuhauser M, Yahiel V, Baehrendtz S, Gunnarson B, Bergström J., Fürst P: Hemoperfusion and removal of endogenous uremic middle molecules in Artificial Kidney, Artifical Liver and Artificial Cells, edited by Chang TMS, New York, Plenum Publ Co 1978, p 153

    Google Scholar 

  85. Ringoir S, De Smet R: Serum chromatographic pattern in different dialysis strategies. Int J Artif Organs 1: 218, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Schoots AC, Mikkers FEP, Ciaessens HA, De Smet R, Van Landschoot N, Ringoir S: Characterization of uremic ’middle molecular’ fractions by gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, isotachophoresis and liquid chromatography. Clin Chem 28: 45, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Faguer P, Man NK, Cueille G, Funck-Brentano JL: Drug interaction in middle molecule analysis, with special reference to acetylsalicylic acid. Artif Organs 8: 226, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Faguer P, Man NK, Pierrat D, Funck-Brentano JL: Semi-automated determination of the uremic toxin ‘b4-2’. Clin Chem 30: 797, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Gallice P, Monti JP, Crevat A, Durand C, Murisasco A: A compound from uremic plasma and from normal urine isolated by liquid chromatography and identified by nuclear magnetic resonance. Clin Chem 31: 30, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Zimmerman L, Fürst P, Bergström J, Jornvall H: A new glycine containing compound with a blocked amino group from uremic body fluids. Clin Nephrol 14: 109, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  91. Cueille G: Mise en évidence et évaluation des ‘moyennes molécules’ de la taille de la vitamine B12 présents dans les liquides biologiques de sujets normaux et de patients urémiques. (Determination of middle molecules presenting vitamin B12molecular size in normal and uremic body fluids.) J Chromatogr 146: 55, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Cueille G, Man NK, Farges JP, Funck-Brentano JL: Characterization of sub-peak b4.2 middle molecule. Artif Organs 4: 28, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  93. Chapman GV, Ward RA, Farrell PC: Separation and quantification of the ‘middle molecules’ in uremia. Kidney Int 17: 82, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Asaba H, Zimmerman L, Bergström J: On drug artifacts in middle molecule analysis. Nephron 39: 73, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Schoots AC, Mikkers FEP, Cramers CAMG, Ringoir S: Profiling of uremic serum by high-resolution gas chromatography-electron-impact, chemical ionization mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr 164: 1, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Mikkers F, Ringoir S, De Smet R: Analytical isotachophoresis of uremic blood samples. J Chromatogr 162: 341, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Mikkers F, Verheggen T, Ringoir S: Isotachophoresis of uremic metabolites, in Protides of Biological Fluids, edited by Peeters H, Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1979, p 727

    Google Scholar 

  98. Mikkers F, Ringoir S: Isotachophoresis of uremic metabolites. in Biochemical and Biological Applications of Isotachophoresis, edited by Adam A, Schots C, Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific, 1980, p 127

    Google Scholar 

  99. Schoots A, Homan H, De Smet R, Cramers C, Vanholder R, Ringoir S: Evaluation of in vivo dialysis efficiency in hemodialysis and hemodiafiltration by reversed-phase liquid chromatography. in First International Symposium on Single-Needle Dialysis, edited by Ringoir S, Vanholder R, Ivanovich P, Cleveland, ISAO Press, 1984, p 151

    Google Scholar 

  100. Schoots AC, Homan HR, Gladdines MM, Cramers C, De Smet R, Ringoir S: Screening of UV-absorbing solutes in uremic serum by reversed phase HPLC - change of blood levels in different therapies. Clin Chim Acta 146: 37, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Schoots A, Vanholder R, De Smet R, Cramers C, Ringoir S: Hippurate and an unknown compound as indicators of residual renal function in dialysed patients, in Immune and Metabolic Aspects of Therapeutic Blood Purification Systems, edited by Smeby LC, Jorstad S, Widerøe TE, Basel, Karger, 1986, p 240

    Google Scholar 

  102. Schoots A, Vanholder R, De Smet R, Cramers C, Ringoir S: Markers of uremic studied by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Abstracts Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 15: 59, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  103. Abiko T, Kumikawa M, Higuchi H, Sekino H: Identification and synthesis of a heptapeptide in uremia fluid. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 84: 184, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Abiko T, Onodera I, Sekino H: Isolation, structure and biological activity of the TRP-containing pentapeptide from uremic fluid. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 89: 813, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Abiko T, Onodera T, Sekino HA: A peptide isolated from the hemodialysate of a uremic patient with immunodeficiency inhibits lymphocyte stimulation. J Appl Biochem 3: 562, 1981

    Google Scholar 

  106. Klein A, Sarnecka-Keller M, Hanicki Z: Middle-sized nin-hydrin-positive molecules in uraemic patients treated by repeated haemodialysis. II. Chief peptide constituents of the fraction. Clin Chim Acta 90: 7, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Mabuchi H, Nakahashi H: Medium-sized peptides in the blood of patients with uremia. Nephron 33: 232, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Elias AN, Vaziri ND, Maksy M: Plasma beta-endorphin and beta-lipotropin in patients with end-stage renal disease - Effects of hemodialysis. Nephron 43: 173, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Flanagran RWJ, Murphy RF, Buchanan KD: Circulating forms of glucagon and related peptides in normal subjects and uraemic patients. Biochem Soc Trans 8: 426, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  110. Ludwig H, Spiteller G, Matthaei D, Scheler F: Profile bei chronischen Erkrankungen. I. Steroid-Profiluntersuchungen bei Urämie. (Profile of chronic disease. I. Investigation of steroid profile in uremia.) J Chromatogr 146: 381, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Greenway DC, Nanji AA: Digoxin-like immunoreactive substance in renal failure: a reappraisal. Nephron 41: 108, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  112. Kelly RA, O’Hara DS, Mitch WE, Steinman TI, Goldzer RV, Solomon HS, Smith TW: Endogenous digitalis-like factors in hypertension and chronic renal insufficiency. Kidney Int 30: 723, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Scribner BH: Discussion. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 11: 29, 1965

    Google Scholar 

  114. Babb A, Farrell P, Uvelli D, Scribner B: Hemodialyzer evaluation by examination of solute molecular spectra. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 18: 98, 1972

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Lowrie EG, Laird NM, Parker TF, Sargent JA: Effect of the hemodialysis prescription on patient morbidity. N Engl J Med 305: 1176, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  116. Scheuer J, Stezoski SW: The effects of uremic compounds on cardiac function and metabolism. J Mol Cell Cardiol 5: 287, 1973

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Giovannetti S, Balestri PL, Barsotti G: Methylguanidine in uremia. Arch Intern Med 131: 709, 1973

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Giovannetti S, Barsotti G: Uremic intoxication. Nephron 14: 123, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Lindup WE, Bischop KA, Collier R: Drug binding defect of uraemic plasma: contribution of endogenous binding inhibitors. in Protein Binding and Drug Transport, edited by Tillement JP, Lindenlaub E, Stuttgart, Schattauer Verlag, 1986, p 397

    Google Scholar 

  120. Boumendil-Podevin EF, Podevin RA, Richet G: Uricosuric agents in uremic sera. Identification of indoxyl sulfate and hippuric acid. J Clin Invest 55: 1142, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Clements RS, De Jesus PV, Winegrad AT: Raised plasma myoinositol levels in uraemia and experimental neuropathy. Lancet 1: 1137, 1973

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Porter RD, Cathcart-Rake WF, Suk Han Wan, Whittier FC, Grantham JJ: Secretory activity and aryl acid content of serum, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid in normal and uremic man. J Lab Clin Med 85: 723, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Vanholder R, Schoots A, Cramers C, De Smet R, Van Landschoot N, Wizeman V, Botella J, Ringoir S: Hippuric acid as a marker, in Uremic Toxins, edited by Ringoir S, Vanholder R, Massry S, New York, Plenum Publ Co, 1987, p 59

    Google Scholar 

  124. Vincent C, Revillard JP, Galland M, Traeger J. Serum beta 2 - microglobulin in hemodialyzed patients. Nephron 21: 260, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. DiRaimondo CR, Casey TT, DiRaimondo CV, Stone WJ: Pathologic fractures associated with idiopathic amyloidosis of bone in chronic hemodialysis patients. Nephron 43: 22, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  126. Shirahama T, Skinner M, Cohen AS, Gejyo F, Arakawa M, Suzuki M, Hirasawa Y: Histochemical and immunohistochemical characterization of amyloid associated with chronic hemodialysis as beta 2-microglobulin. Lab Invest 53: 705, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Gejyo F, Odani S, Yamada T, Honma N, Saito H, Suzuki Y, Nakagawa Y, Kobayashi H, Maruyama Y, Hirasawa Y, Suzuki M, Arakawa M: Beta 2-microglobulin: a new form of amyloid protein associated with chronic hemodialysis. Kidney Int 30: 385, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Hauglustaine D, Waer M, Michielsen P, Goebels J, Vandeputte M: Haemodialysis membranes, serum beta 2-microglobulin, and dialysis amyloidosis. Lancet 1: 1211, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Vandenbroucke JM, Jadoul M, Maldague B, Juaux JP, Noel H, Van Ypersele de Strihou C: Possible role of dialysis membrane characteristics in amyloid osteo-arthropathy. Lancet 1: 1210, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Radtke HW, Rege AB, La Marche MB, Bartos D, Bartos F, Campbell RA, Fischer JW: Identification of spermine as an inhibitor of erythropoiesis in patients with chronic renal failure. J Clin Invest 67: 1623, 1981

    Google Scholar 

  131. Campbell RA: Polyamines. in Uremic Toxins, edited by Ringoir S, Vanholder R, Massry S, New York, Plenum Publ Co, 1987, p 47

    Google Scholar 

  132. Bergström J., Fürst P, Zimmerman L: Uremic middle molecules exist and are biologically active. Clin Nephrol 11: 229, 1979

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Kjellstrand CM, Petersen RJ, Evans RL, Shideman B, Von Hartitzsch B, Buselmeier TJ: Considerations on the middle molecule hypothesis II: neuropathy in nephrectomized patients. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 19: 325, 1973

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Kopple JD, Coburn JW: Evaluation of chronic uremia. JAMA 227: 41, 1974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Farrell PC, Gotch FA, Peters JH, Berridge BJ, Lam M: Binding of hippurate in normal plasma and in uremic plasma pre- and postdialysis. Nephron 20: 40, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Armstrong MD, Chao FC, Parker VJ, Wall PE: Endogenous formation of hippuric acid. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 90: 675, 1955

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Bodel PT, Cotran R, Kass EH: Cranberry juice and the antibacterial action of hippuric acid. J Lab Clin Med 54: 881, 1959

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Bourke E, Frindt G, Preuss H, Rose E, Weksler M, Schreiner GE: Studies with uraemic serum on the renal transport of hippurates and tetraethylammonium in the rabbit and rat: effects of oral neomycin. Clin Sci 38: 41, 1970

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Suk Han Wan, Riegelman S: Renal contribution to overall metabolism of drugs I: Conversion of benzoic acid to hippuric acid. J Pharm Sci 61: 1278, 1972

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Brown EA, Kliger AS, Finkelstein FO: Peritoneal dialysis clearances. Nephron 21: 310, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Man NK, Terlain B, Paris J, Werner G, Sausse A, Funck-Brentano JL: An approach to ‘middle molecules’ identification in artificial kidney dialysate, with reference to neuropathy prevention. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 19: 320, 1973

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Leypoldt JK, Frigon RP, Henderson LW: Dextran sieving coefficients of hemofiltration membranes. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 29: 678, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Rocker A, Hertel J, Fiegel P, Abdelhamid S, Panitz N, Rockel A: Permeability and secondary membrane formation of a high flux polysulfone hemofilter. Kidney Int 30: 429, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  144. Sargent JA, Gotch FA: Mathematic modeling of dialysis therapy. Kidney Int 18: 2, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  145. Gotch FA, Sargent JA: A mechanistic analysis of the national cooperative dialysis study (NCDS). Kidney Int 28: 526, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Aebischer P, Schorderet D, Juillerat A, Wauters JP, Fellay G: Comparison of urea kinetics and direct dialysis quantification in hemodialysis patients. Trans Am Soc Artif Organs 31: 338, 1985

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Ilstrup K, Hanson G, Shapiro W, Keshaviah P: Examining the foundations of urea kinetics. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 31: 164, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Tsang HK, Leonard EF, Le Favour GS, Cortell S: Urea dynamics during and immediately after dialysis, asaio J 8: 251, 1985

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1989 Kluwer Academic Publishers

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Vanholder, R., Schoots, A., Ringoir, S. (1989). Uremic Toxicity. In: Maher, J.F. (eds) Replacement of Renal Function by Dialysis. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1087-4_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1087-4_2

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-010-6979-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-009-1087-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics