Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Malingering: Definitional and Conceptual Ambiguities and Prevalence or Base Rates

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Malingering, Feigning, and Response Bias in Psychiatric/ Psychological Injury

Part of the book series: International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine ((LIME,volume 56))

Abstract

This chapter presents different approaches to the definition of malingering, such as the psychiatric and legal. It builds on the DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision; American Psychiatric Association 2000) approach that involves both conscious, overt malingering and gross exaggeration for external incentives, such as financial gain. Malingering should be attributed only when the evidence is introconvertible. Psychological approaches are described that have conflated exaggeration, in general, with frank malingering. Other psychological approaches are presented that adhere to the traditional approach of pairing only gross exaggerations with outright malingering.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Allen III, L.M., R.L. Conder, P. Green, and D.R. Cox. 1997. CARB’97: Manual for the Computerized Assessment of Response Bias. Durham: CogniSyst.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Board of Clinical Neuropsychology. 2007. American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) practice guidelines for neuropsychological assessment and consultation. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 21: 209–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. 1994. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. 2000. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR, 4th ed., text rev. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5, 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Porath, Y.S., and A. Tellegen. 2008/2011. MMPI-2-RF: Manual for administration, scoring, and interpretation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Porath, Y.S., J.R. Graham, and A. Tellegen. 2009. The MMPI-2 Symptom Validity (FBS) Scale: Development, research findings, & interpretive recommendations. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, D.T.R., and N.W. Nelson. 2010. DSM-5 and malingering: A modest proposal. Psychological Injury and Law 3: 295–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bianchini, K.J., K.W. Greve, and G. Glynn. 2005. On the diagnosis of malingered pain-related disability: Lessons from cognitive malingering research. The Spine Journal 5: 404–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Binder, L.M. 1993. Portland Digit Recognition Test manual, 2nd ed. Portland: Private Publication.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binder, L.M., and S.C. Willis. 1991. Assessment of motivation after financially compensable minor head trauma. Psychology Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 3: 175–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boone, K.B. 2007. A reconsideration of the Slick et al. (1999) criteria for malingered neurocognitive dysfunction. In Assessment of feigned cognitive impairment: A neuropsychological perspective, ed. K.B. Boone, 26–49. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boone, K. 2011a. Somatoform disorders, factitious disorder, and malingering. In The little black book of neuropsychology: A syndrome-based approach, ed. M.R. Schoenberg and J.G. Scott, 551–565. New York: Springer Science + Business Media.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Boone, K.B. 2011b. Clarification or confusion? A review of Rogers, Bender, and Johnson’s A critical analysis of the MND criteria for feigned cognitive impairment: Implications for forensic practice and research. Psychological Injury and Law 4: 157–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boone, K.B., X. Savodnik, S. Ghaffarian, A. Lee, D. Freeman, and N. Berman. 1995. Rey 15-item Memorization and Dot Counting scores in a ‘Stress’ claim worker’s compensation population: Relationship to personality (MCMI) scores. Journal of Clinical Psychology 51: 457–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R.J. 2004. Psychological mechanisms of medically unexplained symptoms: An integrative conceptual model. Psychological Bulletin 130: 793–812.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bush, S.S., R.M. Ruff, A.I. Troster, J.T. Barth, S.P. Koffler, N.H. Pliskin, C.R. Reynolds, and C.H. Silver. 2005. Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 20: 419–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butcher, J.N., W.G. Dahlstrom, J.R. Graham, A. Tellegen, and B. Kaemmer. 1989. Manual for the restandardized Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory: MMPI-2. An interpretive guide. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butcher, J.N., J.R. Graham, Y.S. Ben-Porath, A. Tellegen, W.G. Dahlstrom, and G. Kaemmer. 2001. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2: Manual for administration and scoring, 2nd ed. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butcher, J.N., C.S. Gass, E. Cumella, Z. Kally, and C.L. Williams. 2008. Potential for bias in MMPI-2 assessments using the fake bad scale (FBS). Psychological Injury and Law 1: 191–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carone, D.A., and S.S. Bush. 2013a. Mild traumatic brain injury: System validity assessment and malingering. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carone, D.A., and S.S. Bush. 2013b. Introduction: Historical perspectives on mild traumatic brain injury, symptom validity assessment, and malingering. In Mild traumatic brain injury: System validity assessment and malingering, ed. D.A. Carone and S.S. Bush, 1–29. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chafetz, M.D. 2008. Malingering on the social security disability consultative examination: Predictors and base rates. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 22: 529–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chafetz, M.D. 2010. Symptom validity issues in the psychological consultative examination for social security disability. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 24: 1045–1063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chafetz, M.D. 2011. Reducing the probability of false positives in malingering detection of social security disability claimants. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 25: 1239–1252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chafetz, M.D., E. Prentkowski, and A. Rao. 2011. To work or not to work: Motivation (not low IQ) determines symptom validity test findings. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 26: 306–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conder, R., L. Allen, and D. Cox. 1992. Computerized Assessment of Response Bias Test manual. Durham: Cognisyst.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dattilio, F.M., R.L. Sadoff, E.Y. Drogin, and T.G. Gutheil. 2011. Should forensic psychiatrists conduct psychological testing? Journal of Psychiatry and Law 39: 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delis, D.C., J.H. Kramer, E. Kaplan, and B.A. Ober. 1987. California Verbal Learning Test: Manual. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elhai, J.D., J.J. Sweet, L.M.G. Breting, and D. Kaloupek. 2012. Assessment in contexts that threaten response validity. In PTSD and mild traumatic brain injury, ed. J.J. Vasterling, R.A. Bryant, and T.M. Keane, 174–198. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eliashof, B.A., and J. Streltzer. 2003. Psychological impairment. In Disability evaluation, 2nd ed, ed. S.L. Demeter and G.B.J. Andersson, 583–595. St Louis: Mosby.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, F.B. 2011. Introduction to practice matters special section on VA compensation and pension exams for PTSD and other mental disorders. Psychological Injury and Law 4: 169–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faust, D. (ed.). 2012. Coping with psychiatric and psychological testimony, 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishbain, D.A., R. Cutler, H.L. Rosomoff, and R.S. Rosomoff. 1999. Chronic pain disability exaggeration/malingering and submaximal effort research. Clinical Journal of Pain 15: 244–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frederick, R.I. 2012. Malingering/cooperation/effort. In Coping with psychiatric and psychological testimony, 6th ed, ed. D. Faust, 229–247. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garner, B.A. (ed.). 2009. Black’s law dictionary, 9th ed. St. Paul: West.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavin, H. 1843. On feigned and factitious diseases, chiefly of soldiers and seamen; on the means used to simulate or produce them, and on the best modes of discovering imposters; being the prize essay in the class of military surgery, in the University of Edinburgh session, 1835–6, with additions. London: John Churchill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, L.H., and D.W. Shuman. 2009. Evaluating mental health disability in the workplace: Model, process, and analysis. New York: Springer Science + Business Media.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Green, P. 2004. Manual for Medical Symptom Validity Test (MSVT) user’s manual and program. Edmonton: Green’s.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, P. 2005. Green’s Word Memory Test for Window’s: User’s manual. Edmonton: Green’s.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, P., M.L. Rohling, P.R. Lees-Haley, and L.M. Allen III. 2001. Effort has a greater effect on test scores than severe brain injury in compensation claimants. Brain Injury 15: 1045–1060.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greiffenstein, M.F., W.J. Baker, and T. Gola. 1994. Validation of malingered amnesia measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological Assessment 6: 218–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greve, K.W., J.S. Ord, K.J. Bianchini, and K.L. Curtis. 2009. Prevalence of malingering in patients with chronic pain referred for psychologic evaluation in a medico-legal context. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 90: 1117–1126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grote, C.L., E.K. Kooker, D.C. Garron, D.L. Nyenhuis, C.A. Smith, and M.L. Mattingly. 2000. Performance of compensation seeking and non-compensation seeking samples on the Victoria Symptom Validity Test: Cross-validation and extension of a standardization study. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 22: 709–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heilbronner, R.L., J.J. Sweet, J.E. Morgan, G.J. Larrabee, S.R. Millis, and Conference Participants. 2009. American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology Consensus Conference Statement on the neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 23: 1093–1129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heilbrun, K., T. Grisso, and A.M. Goldstein. 2009. Foundations of forensic mental health assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inman, T.H., C.D. Vickery, D.T.R. Berry, D.G. Lamb, C.L. Edwards, and G.T. Smith. 1998. Development and initial validation of a new procedure for evaluating adequacy of effort given during neuropsychological testing: The Letter Memory Test. Psychological Assessment 10: 128–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, A.W., and J.A. Dvoskin. 2011. Evaluation for personal injury claims. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, W.P. 1906. Perjury for pay: An expos of the methods and criminal cunning of the modern malingerer. Kansas City: The Burton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larrabee, G.J. 2003. Detection of malingering using atypical performance patterns on standard neuropsychological tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 17: 410–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larrabee, G.J. 2007. Introduction: Malingering, research design, and base rates. In Assessment of malingered neuropsychological deficits, ed. G.J. Larrabee, 3–13. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larrabee, G.J. 2008. Aggregation across multiple indicators improves the detection of malingering: Relationship in likelihood ratios. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 22: 666–679.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larrabee, G.J., S.R. Millis, and J.E. Meyers. 2009. 40 Plus or minus 10, a new magical number: Reply to Russell. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 23: 841–849.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, T.T.C., J.R. Graham, M. Sellbom, and R.O. Gervais. 2012. Examining the potential for gender bias in the prediction of symptom validity test failure by MMPI-2 Symptom Validity Scale scores. Psychological Assessment. doi:10.1037/a0026458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lees-Haley, P.R., L.T. English, and W.J. Glenn. 1991. A Fake Bad Scale for the MMPI-2 for personal injury claimants. Psychological Reports 68: 203–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meehl, P.E., and A. Rosen. 1955. Antecedent probability and the efficiency of psychometric signs, patterns, or cutting scores. Psychological Bulletin 52: 194–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merckelbach, H., and T. Merten. 2012. A note on cognitive dissonance and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 26: 1217–1229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merckelbach, H., M. Jelicic, and M. Pieters. 2011. The residual effect of feigning: How intentional faking may evolve into a less conscious form of symptom reporting. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 33: 131–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, H.A. 2001. M-FAST: Miller-Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test professional manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L., R.L. Sadoff, and F.M. Dattilio. 2011. Personal injury: The independent medical examination in psychology and psychiatry. In Handbook of forensic assessment: Psychological and psychiatric perspectives, ed. E.Y. Drogin, F.M. Dattilio, R.L. Sadoff, and T.G. Gutheil, 277–302. Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Millis, S.R., and C.T. Volinsky. 2001. Assessment of response bias in mild head injury: Beyond malingering tests. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 23: 809–828.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Millis, S.R., S.H. Putman, K.M. Adams, and J.H. Ricker. 1995. The California Verbal Learning Test in the diction of incomplete effort in neuropsychological evaluation. Psychological Assessment 7: 463–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mish, F.C. (ed.). 2003. Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary, 11th ed. Springfield: Merriam-Webster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mittenberg, W., C. Patton, E.M. Canyock, and D.C. Condit. 2002. Base rates of malingering and symptom exaggeration. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 24: 1094–1102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R. 1990. Models of feigned mental illness. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 21: 182–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R. 2008. An introduction to response styles. In Clinical assessment of malingering and deception, 3rd ed, ed. R. Rogers, 3–13. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R., and S.D. Bender. 2012. Evaluation of malingering and related response styles. In Handbook of psychology: Vol. 11. Forensic psychology, 2nd ed, ed. I.B. Weiner, R.K. Otto, and R.K. Otto, 517–540. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R., and A.A. Correa. 2008. Determinations of malingering: Evolution from case-based methods to detection strategies. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 15: 213–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R., and R.P. Granacher Jr. 2011. Conceptualization and assessment of malingering. In Handbook of forensic assessment: Psychological and psychiatric perspectives, ed. E.Y. Drogin, F.M. Dattilio, R.L. Sadoff, and T.G. Gutheil, 659–678. Hoboken: Wiley.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R., R.M. Bagby, and S.E. Dickens. 1992. Structured interview of reported symptoms. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R., N.D. Gillard, D.T.R. Berry, and R.P. Granacher Jr. 2011. Effectiveness of the MMPI-2-RF validity scales for feigned mental disorders and cognitive impairment: A known-groups study. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 33: 355–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruff, R.M., and C.W. Jamora. 2008. Forensic neuropsychology and mild traumatic brain injury. Psychological Injury and Law 2: 122–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellbom, M., J. Toomey, D. Wygant, L. Kucharski, and S. Duncan. 2010. Utility of the MMPI-2-RF (Restructured Form) validity scales in detecting malingering in a criminal forensic setting: A known-groups design. Psychological Assessment 22: 22–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharland, M.J., and J.D. Gfeller. 2007. A survey of neuropsychologists’ beliefs and practices with respect to the assessment of effort. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 22: 213–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slick, D.J., G. Hopp, E. Strauss, and G.B. Thompson. 1997/2005. Victoria Symptom Validity Test: Professional manual. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slick, D.J., E.M.S. Sherman, and G.L. Iverson. 1999. Diagnostic criteria for malingered neurocognitive dysfunction: Proposed standards for clinical practice and research. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 13: 545–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slick, D.J., and E.M.S. Sherman. 2013. Differential diagnosis of malingering. In Mild traumatic brain injury: System validity assessment and malingering, ed. D.A. Carone and S.S. Bush, 57–72. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slick, D.J., J.E. Tan, E.H. Strauss, and D.F. Hultsch. 2004. Detecting malingering: A survey of experts’ practices. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 19: 465–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soliman, S., and P.J. Resnick. 2010. Feigning in adjudicative competence evaluations. Behavioral Sciences and the Law 28: 614–629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sollman, M.J., and D.T.R. Berry. 2011. Detection of inadequate effort on neuropsychological testing: A meta-analytic update and extension. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 26: 774–789.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spanos, N., B. James, and H. de Groot. 1990. Detection of simulated hypnotic amnesia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 99: 179–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suls, J., and M.B. Howren. 2012. Understanding the physical-symptom experience: The distinctive contributions of anxiety and depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science 21: 129–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tisza, S.M., J.R. Mottl III, and D.B. Matthews. 2003. Current trends in workers’ compensation stress claims. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 16: 571–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tombaugh, T.N. 1996. TOMM: The Test of Memory Malingering manual. North Tonawanda/New York: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • United States v. Greer, 158 F.3d 228 (1998).

    Google Scholar 

  • VandenBos, G.R. (ed.). 2007. APA dictionary of psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Victor, T.L., K.B. Boone, J.G. Serpa, J. Buehler, and E.A. Ziegler. 2009. Interpreting the meaning of multiple symptom validity test failure. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 23: 297–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Von Hippel, W., and R. Trivers. 2011. The evolution and psychology of self-deception. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34: 1–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warren, P.A. 2011. Prevalence of behavioral health concerns and systemic issues in disability treatment and management. In Behavioral health disability: Innovations in prevention and management, ed. P.A. Warren, 9–47. New York: Springer Science + Business Media.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. 1997. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 3rd ed. WAIS-III: Administration and scoring manual. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Widows, M.R., and G.P. Smith. 2005. Structured Inventory of Malingered Symptomology. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, C.L., J.N. Butcher, C.S. Gass, E. Cumella, and Z. Kally. 2009. Inaccuracies about the MMPI-2 fake bad scale in the reply by Ben-Porath, Greve, Bianchini, and Kaufman (2009). Psychological Injury and Law 2: 182–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worthen, M.D., and R.G. Moering. 2011. A practical guide to conducting VA compensation and pension exams for PTSD and other mental disorders. Psychological Injury and Law 4: 187–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wygant, D.B., J.L. Anderson, M. Sellbom, J.L. Rapier, L.M. Allgeier, and R.P. Granacher. 2011. Association of the MMPI-2 restructured form (MMPI-2-RF) validity scales with structured malingering criteria. Psychological Injury and Law 4: 13–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, G. 2010. Causes in the construction of causal law: A psycho-ecological model. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 32: 73–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, G. 2014. Malingering, feigning, response bias in psychiatric/ psychological injury. Dordrecht: Springer SBM.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Glendon College, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Gerald Young

Authors
  1. Gerald Young
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Young, G. (2014). Malingering: Definitional and Conceptual Ambiguities and Prevalence or Base Rates. In: Malingering, Feigning, and Response Bias in Psychiatric/ Psychological Injury. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 56. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7899-3_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation