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Belgium: A Broken Marriage?

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Federalism and Legal Unification

Part of the book series: Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice ((IUSGENT,volume 28))

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Abstract

Although a small country, Belgium has a mind boggling governance model. Starting out in 1830 as a highly centralized francophone nation, under pressure of the Flemish movement, the country has developed into a federal system. Since the 1960s, it has witnessed an ongoing process of reforming its structure and institutions. The distinction between Regions (based on territoriality) and Communities (based on language and culture) resulted in a complex and overlapping division of powers between several levels, parliaments, governments and administrative authorities. With six state reforms in about 40 years, Belgium now is a country where two peoples live separately (Dutch speaking Flemish in the North and Francophone Walloon in the South, with bilingual yet dominantly Francophone Brussels in the Center). There is no common language, culture, media, cultural or business life. The evolution towards confederalism seems inevitable.

Alain-Laurent Verbeke, Full Professor of Law at the Universities of Leuven & Tilburg and Visiting Professor of Law Harvard Law School, Attorney in Brussels. The author wishes to thank Prof. Dr. André Baron Alen (Leuven), Judge in the Constitutional Court and Prof. Dr. Kurt Deketelaere (Leuven/Dundee), Chief of Cabinet of the Flemish Minster of Public Works, Environment and Nature Conservation, for their valuable comments and suggestions.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Total population of ca 11,000,000.

  2. 2.

    L. Hooghe, Belgium: Hollowing the Center, in Federalism and Territorial Cleavages, Eds. Ugo M. Amoretti and Nancy Bermeo, Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore. 2004, pp. 56–57.

  3. 3.

    The Flemish demand for reform in 1970 aimed at cultural and language rights (reflected in Communities) and the Walloons at economic autonomy (reflected in Regions), in order to improve the bad economic situation in the South.

  4. 4.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, Handboek van het Belgisch Staatsrecht, Kluwer, Antwerp. 2011, n. 253–256.

  5. 5.

    This is a small German-speaking area along the eastern border with a population of about 75,000.

  6. 6.

    With a mitigation through ‘language facilities’ in 27 municipalities in a monolingual Region, where it is allowed to use the language of a protected minority in public matters. There are six border municipalities in Flanders with facilities for Francophone people, four border municipalities in Wallonia with facilities for Dutch speakers, six municipalities in Flanders on the border with Brussels, with facilities for Francophone people, nine municipalities in the German language area with facilities for Francophone people and two municipalities in Wallonia with facilities for German speaking people.

  7. 7.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 263–264.

  8. 8.

    In the Belgian context, this concept does not necessarily refer to a cooperative model between independent states, but also to the extreme devolution of powers to the component states within the framework of one single independent State, in which, however, the powers of the Central Government have become extremely limited.

  9. 9.

    Involving several transfers of power on minor issues, not discussed in this Report because not yet approved. See Proposal for a Special Act on Institutional Measures, Belgian Senate 2007–2008, n. 4-602/1, 5 March 2008.

  10. 10.

    With a slightly different legal status.

  11. 11.

    There are, however, many exceptions, keeping several aspects of such powers with the central Federal authority (see infra).

  12. 12.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 360–362.

  13. 13.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 411–414.

  14. 14.

    This is the date the SSRA entered into force.

  15. 15.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 372–374.

  16. 16.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 58.

  17. 17.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 364.

  18. 18.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 418–419.

  19. 19.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 365.

  20. 20.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 299–303.

  21. 21.

    Constitutional Court, n. 9 and 10, 30 January 1986; n. 17, 26 March 1986; n.29, 18 November 1986; n.51, 19 April 2006.

  22. 22.

    Constitutional Court, n. 54/96, 3 October 1996; Comments of A. Alen & P. Peeters, in European Public Law 1997, 165–173.

  23. 23.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 379–380bis.

  24. 24.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 385.

  25. 25.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 408–410.

  26. 26.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 306–323.

  27. 27.

    See also L. Hooghe, “A Leap in the Dark: Federalist Conflict and Federal Reform in Belgium.” Occasional Paper #27, Western Societies Program. Cornell University: Ithaca. 1991. Nevertheless for the first time in three decades a Francophone holds the top position since 2011.

  28. 28.

    Except for the Brussels Capital Region and some surrounding suburbs, all of the electoral districts are monolingual.

  29. 29.

    Except for budget matters and for special majority laws.

  30. 30.

    Some autonomy remains, protected by the Constitutional Court against infringements of, e.g., the Regions and Communities (A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 191 bis).

  31. 31.

    Constitutional Court, n. 135/2006, 14 September 2006; n. 137/2006, 14 September 2006; n. 87/2007, 20 June 2007.

  32. 32.

    Cour de Cassation 16 November 2004, Rechtskundig Weekblad 2005–2006, 387.

  33. 33.

    Constitutional Court, n. 26/91, 16 October 1991; n. 12/94, 3 February 1994.

  34. 34.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 513.

  35. 35.

    The unifying power of the judgments of the Courts of Appeal is limited to the jurisdiction area of such Court. It is not unusual to see a split of opinion between different Appellate Courts, not only but often following the linguistic lines (Antwerp, Ghent, Brussels Flemish Chambers vs. Liège, Mons and Brussels French Chambers).

  36. 36.

    Constitutional Court, n. 81/2007, 7 June 2007.

  37. 37.

    Constitutional Court, n. 18/90, 23 May 1990.

  38. 38.

    Constitutional Court, n. 24/86, 26 June 1986.

  39. 39.

    Constitutional Court, n. 2/92, 15 January 1992; n. 68/96, 28 November 1996; n. 74/96, 11 December 1996; n. 49/99, 29 April 1999.

  40. 40.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 455–458.

  41. 41.

    Constitutional Court, n. 193/2004, 24 November 2004; n. 25/2005, 2 February 2005.

  42. 42.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 530–590.

  43. 43.

    By the 1930s, the Catholic party became divided into two linguistic “wings” – one Flemish and one French-speaking – over the issue of Flemish cultural autonomy, and later in 1968, the Christian Democrats formally split into two separate Parties, as part of the conflict surrounding the Catholic University of Leuven/Louvain. Similarly, in the 1960s and 1970s, as Walloon economic conditions declined, Walloon Federalist Parties sprouted up, with federalist-socialist agendas, which threatened the larger Socialist Party and led to its division in 1978. The Federal Liberal Party also broke up along Flemish and Francophone lines in 1971.

  44. 44.

    K. Deschouwer. “The Changing Nature of Belgian Consociationalism: 1961–2001,” Acta Politica, Section 4.

  45. 45.

    Kris Deschouwer, “Kingdom of Belgium,” in Constitutional Origins, Structure, and Change in Federal Countries, ed. John Kincaid, et al., A Global Dialogue on Federalism (Montreal: Published for Forum of Federations and InterFederal Association of Centers for Federal Studies by McGill-Queens’s University Press, 2005), p. 60.

  46. 46.

    One must add the Senators by virtue of Law, being the sons and daughters of the King, from the age of 18, with voting rights from the age of 21.

  47. 47.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 161bis and n. 241bis.

  48. 48.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 508–513bis.

  49. 49.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011 n. 501.

  50. 50.

    The following text under 5.4.5.1 is a quotation, taken literally from Robert Mnookin & Alain Verbeke, “Persistent Nonviolent Conflict with No Reconciliation: The Flemish and Walloons in Belgium”, 72 Law and Contemporary Problems 2009, Spring (151), 164–166.

  51. 51.

    This quote comes from a published letter to the Belgian King written by J. Destree, a Walloon Socialist leader. See A. Alen, “Nationalism – Federalism – Democracy. The example of Belgium,” Revue européenne de droit public 1993, Vol. 5, n. 1, p. 47.

  52. 52.

    Some even suggest that the younger Flemish are more willing to identify with Belgium, possibly because they lack first-hand experience with linguistic discrimination W. Swenden & M.T. Jans, “Will it Stay or will it Go? Federalism and the Sustainability of Belgium,” West European Politics 2006, Vol. 29(5), p. 889.

  53. 53.

    Liesbet Hooghe, 2004, p. 65.

  54. 54.

    Against “clichés”, see Rudy Aernoudt, Vlaanderen Wallonië. Je t’aime moi non plus, Roularta Books: Roeselare. 2006, pp. 17–35.

  55. 55.

    Research indicates that the partisan control over the administration in Wallonia impacts on the French-speaking governments’ resistance against organizational and HR management reforms, while Flanders has been a modernizer in administrative reform (M. Brans, C. De Visscher & D. Vancoppenolle. “Administrative Reform in Belgium: Maintenance or Modernisation?”, WEP 29(5), 2006, pp. 979–998).

  56. 56.

    See also Martin Euwema & Alain Verbeke, “Negative and Positive Roles of Media in the Belgian Conflict : A Model for De-escalation”, 93 Marquette Law Review Fall (139), 2009, pp. 140–150.

  57. 57.

    Martin Euwema & Alain Verbeke, 93 Marquette Law Review 2009, Fall, 2009, pp. 150–158.

  58. 58.

    Els De Bens, “European Media Landscape: Belgium,” European Journalism Centre. 2000. http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/belgium.html

  59. 59.

    Kris Deschouwer, “Kingdom of Belgium,” in Constitutional Origins, Structure, and Change in Federal Countries, ed. John Kincaid, et al., A Global Dialogue on Federalism (Montreal: Published for Forum of Federations and InterFederal Association of Centers for Federal Studies by McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005), p. 50.

  60. 60.

    Belgian newspapers, however, are self-regulated by a single association, the Federation of Editors. “Country Profile: Belgium,” BBC News. 14 May 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/999709.stm

  61. 61.

    Victor Ginsburgh & Shlomo Weber, “La dynamique des langues en Belgique,” Regards Economiques, Institut de Recherches Economiques et Sociales de l’Université Catholique de Louvain, June 2006, n. 42, 4.

  62. 62.

    A. Alen & K. Muylle, 2011, n. 513bis.

  63. 63.

    Robert Mnookin & Alain Verbeke, 72 Law and Contemporary Problems 2009, Spring, p. 186.

  64. 64.

    Ibid.

  65. 65.

    Martin Euwema & Alain Verbeke, Negative and Positive Roles of Media in the Belgian Conflict: A Model for De-escalation, 93 Marquette Law Review 2009, Fall, 163–171.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Private Law, Law Faculty of the University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

    Alain-Laurent Verbeke (Full Professor of Law)

  2. Department of Private Law, Law Faculty of Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Alain-Laurent Verbeke (Full Professor of Law)

  3. Harvard Law School, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA

    Alain-Laurent Verbeke (Visiting Professor of Law)

  4. member of the Bar of Brussels, Brussels, Belgium

    Alain-Laurent Verbeke (Attorney)

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Correspondence to Alain-Laurent Verbeke .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Eric Stein Collegiate Professor of Law, University of Michigan Law School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

    Daniel Halberstam

  2. Hessel E. Yntema Professor of Law, University of Michigan Law School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

    Mathias Reimann

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Verbeke, AL., Verbeke, AL., Verbeke, AL. (2014). Belgium: A Broken Marriage?. In: Halberstam, D., Reimann, M. (eds) Federalism and Legal Unification. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 28. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7398-1_5

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