Managing Water Scarcity in Southern Africa: Policy and Strategies

Abstract

This chapter reviews Southern Africa region’s efforts to combat water scarcity including enacted water policies, agreements and strategies (such as inter-basin water transfers) put in place to guide the Member States in combating the challenges arising from water scarcity that is affecting a large portion of the region. Unequal distribution and rainfall variability and unreliability compounds an already bad situation because while in other parts of the region there is seasonal water abundance, in other parts there is perpetual deficit. The regional organ (SADC) was formed with the primary objective of integration and cooperation among member countries with water considered as a critical factor to the integrated and cooperative socio-economic development of the region. The coordinated, sustainable and integrated development and management of the region’s water resources is expected to contribute to the region’s goal of attaining an integrated regional economy built on the basis of balance, equity and mutual benefit for all member states. Water management particularly supports the SADC objectives of poverty reduction, food security, energy security and industrial development, as well as being an instrument to promote peace and cooperation amongst the partners.

Among the many things I learnt as a president, was the centrality of water in the social, political and economic affairs of the country, the continent and the world

(Nelson Mandela, World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002).

Appendices

Appendix 2.1: River Basin Organizations

The International Commission for the Congo-Oubangui-Sangha Basin (CICOS) is a relatively new RBO and was only created in 1999. Member states of CICOS are Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo and the Republic of Congo. The main objective of CICOS is to improve cooperation amongst the member states, through improved communication using the Congo River and its tributaries. In recent years attention has been on large hydropower projects that use the large quantities of water from the Congo River.

Pangani Basin Water Board

The Pangani River Basin is shared by Kenya and Tanzania and covers about 42 000 km². The two countries established the Pangani Basin Water Board (PBWB) and the Pangani Basin Water Office (PBWO) in July 1991 to jointly manage the water resources in the basin. The PBWO reports to the PBWB. The board’s task is to advise the basin water officer on all matters concerning the apportionment of water supplies; the determination, diminution or modification of water rights; measures to be taken in case of drought; and priorities to be given to different water uses in the basin.

Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission

The three Okavango Basin states Angola, Botswana and Namibia signed an agreement in 1994 that formed the Permanent Okavango River Basin Commission (OKACOM). The Agreement commits the member states to promote coordinated and environmentally sustainable regional water resources development, while addressing the legitimate social and economic needs of each of the riparian states. The three countries recognize the implications that developments upstream of the river can have on the resource downstream. Most of the river is currently undeveloped and is recognized as one of the few “near pristine” rivers in the world.

Inkomati Tripartite Permanent Technical Committee

The Tripartite Permanent Technical Committee (TPTC) is collaboration between three SADC member states namely, South Africa, Mozambique and Swaziland. The cooperation on the joint management of the Inkomati Basin started in 1992, when South Africa and Swaziland signed the Komati Accord. In 2002 Mozambique joined the Accord and TPTC was founded as one of the first RBOs in southern Africa. One of the main objectives of TPTC is to manage the water flow of the Inkomati River and Maputo River, particularly during times of drought and flood.

Lake Tanganyika Authority

Lake Tanganyika is Africa’s oldest and deepest lake, and contains almost 17 % of the world’s available freshwater. Millions of people depend on the lake for water, food, and transportation. The Lake Tanganyika Authority (LTA) was established in December 2008 by the governments of Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, and Zambia. Its management structure includes the Conference of Ministers, the Management Committee and the Secretariat. The LTA promotes regional cooperation required for socio-economic development and sustainable management of the natural resources in the Lake Tanganyika basin. Furthermore, the LTA coordinates the implementation of the Convention on the Sustainable Management of Lake Tanganyika. The LTA also coordinates and oversees the implementation of the Regional Integrated Management Program which focuses on establishment of sustainable fisheries, catchment management, pollution control, climate change adaptations, and monitoring programs.

Zambezi Water Course Commission

The agreement to establish the Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM) was signed in 2004 by Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, Tanzania and Mozambique. Zambia is yet to sign as the country is still consulting its stakeholders. Currently, seven of the eight countries have signed the protocol, but only four out of the seven have ratified it, with Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania and Zimbabwe still outstanding. The Commission will only come into force when six out of eight countries ratify the Agreement. Meanwhile an interim Secretariat has been established and a draft document prepared to guide the process of operation.

Ruvuma Joint Water Commission

The Governments of the Republic of Mozambique and the United Republic of Tanzania have very recently established the Ruvuma Joint Water Commission with the principal objective of ensuring sustainable development and equitable utilization of common water resources of Ruvuma River basin. The Ruvuma River forms the boundary between Mozambique and Tanzania for a length of 650 km from the coast and has a total length of about 760 km. The entire area of Ruvuma River basin is about 152,200 km² of which 65.39 % are in Mozambique, 34.30 % are in Tanzania, and 0.31 % is in Malawi (SADC 2008).

In 2010a, b, SADC released guidelines for strengthening river basin organizations, a series of four guidelines designed to assist practitioners in making decision, based on best practices from River Basin Organizations (RBOs) in the region. Guidelines were developed in the following areas:

• Stakeholder Participation;

• Environmental Management;

• Funding and Financing; and

• Establishment and Development.

The goal of the Stakeholder Participation Guideline is to establish a set of procedures that can assist RBOs implement participatory processes. The importance of active stakeholder involvement and the mechanisms for stakeholder involvement within the Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP) and the SADC Regional Water Policy are highlighted within this guideline. Four strategic areas for implementing participatory processes are presented: (i) participatory framework, (ii) communication and outreach, (iii) stakeholder consultation, and (iv) collaboration with stakeholders. Additional details on these strategic areas are outlined in the box below.

The Stakeholder Participation Guideline outlines four strategic areas for implementing participatory processes:-

• Under participatory framework, the guidelines recommend defining the context of participation, identifying and classifying the stakeholder groups, developing a participatory strategy and creating an enabling environment. The Stakeholder Roadmap, developed within the Orange-Senqu River basin is an example of a strategy for stakeholder involvement.

• The strategic area of communication and outreach discusses the importance of information sharing to ensure that stakeholders are informed on a range of issues. The possible interventions proposed under this area include: sensitizing the broader public; providing in depth analysis of the core issues; providing first hand exposure to the RBO activities through involving the public in activities; reaching out to marginalized groups and younger audiences; and providing updates and specific information on RBO initiatives through a website. The River Awareness Kit (RAK) approach is provided as an example of a tool for communication and outreach within an RBO.

• Stakeholder consultation focuses on the two-way flow of information with stakeholders. The potential interventions presented include: obtaining contextual information through questionnaires and surveys; gathering input on RBO activities through interviews; and gaining inputs on priorities and preferences through focus groups and public consultation sessions. The Basin Wide Forum established by the Okavango Commission is an example of a stakeholder consultation initiative.

• The collaboration with stakeholders’ strategic area focuses on how to act on the information provided by the stakeholders. The possible interventions outlined in the guidelines include developing joint plans, formalizing the institutional framework for stakeholder engagement, and developing the capacity of stakeholders. The Komati Joint Operation Form is a mechanism for stakeholder involvement within the Komati River basin.

The Environmental Management Guideline outlines the critical importance of environmental management within SADC, as outlined in the 2000 SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses and the SADC Regional Water Policy. The Environmental Management Guideline introduces the key principles of environmental management: sustainability, precaution, integration and participation. The guidelines are presented in three strategic areas: (i) environmental policy, (ii) environmental information management systems, and (iii) environmental management programs.

The purpose of the Funding and financing Guideline is to establish a set of procedures that can assist RBOs become financial sustainable. The different types of RBOs and range of mandates are reviewed and examples of financial strategies for different RBOs are presented. The three strategic areas presented in the Funding and Financing Guideline includes the following:-

• (i) Financial planning,

• (ii) Revenue streams,

• (iii) Financial management. Six case studies from RBOs from around the world are reviewed to gain insight into how the guidelines translate into practice.

The goal of the Establishment and Development Guideline is to propose procedures to assist Governments in establishing institutions to manage trans-boundary watercourses. Institutional arrangements provide the foundation to develop human and financial capabilities to ensure sustainable socio-economic development and environmental protection of natural resources.

Appendix 2.2: The Revised Protocol on Shared Water Courses in SADC

Water has played a unifying role in the SADC region, leading to regional cooperation. The Revised Protocol on Shared Watercourses in SADC (Revised Protocol) was the first binding agreement amongst SADC member states, which illustrates the important role water plays within the region. The Original Protocol was drafted in 1995 to be aligned with the Helsinki Rules. It was revised and signed in 2000 and came into force in 2003. The revised Protocol defines a watercourse as “a system of surface waters and ground waters constituting a unity whole normally flowing into a common terminus such as sea, lake or aquifer.” A watercourse state is a state “in whose territory part of the watercourse is situated”.

The Revised Protocol stresses the importance of taking a basin-wide approach to water management rather than emphasizing the principle of territorial sovereignty. It outlines specific objectives, including the improvement of cooperation to promote the sustainable and coordinated management, protection, and utilization of trans-boundary watercourses and promoting the SADC Agenda of Regional Integration and Poverty Alleviation. The Revised Protocol provides the flexibility for countries to enter into specific basin-wide agreements, which is the approach promoted under the Watercourses Convention. The agreement allows for planned measures, such as environmental protection, management of shared watercourses, prevention and mitigation of harmful conditions and emergency situations (ORASECOM 2007).

The revised protocol on shared water courses in SADC provides the context for the RWP and it states that the over-arching goals are designed to be put into practice by the RWS. Important inputs to the RWS are the SADC Vision for Water, Life and Environment and the Regional Framework for action (RFFA). These led to the development of National Framework for Action, i.e. the National IWRM Plans (SADC 2007).

The over-arching strategies within the RWP are:-

• Regional Cooperation in Water Resources Management;

• Water for Development and Poverty Alleviation;

• Water for Environmental Sustainability;

• Security for Water-Related Disasters;

• Water Resources Information and Management;

• Water Resources Development and Management;

• Regional Water Resources Institutional Framework;

• Stakeholder Participation and Capacity Development; and

• Accessing Funding and Resources.

Appendix 2.3: The Regional Water Policy and Strategy

The SADC Regional Water Policy and Strategy (RWPS) is designed to support the implementation of the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses as the key legal instrument for promoting regional cooperation regarding water related issues (SADC 2007). As outlined in the RWPS (2007), the implementation of the Protocol should be supported by the following key activities:

• Strengthening the SADC Water Division as the implementing organization responsible for promoting, coordinating and monitoring the Protocol;

• Negotiating bilateral and multilateral agreements between Watercourse States within the framework of the SADC Protocol, which include mechanisms for the peaceful resolution of disputes;

• Strengthening shared watercourse institutions to promote good governance and cooperation between Watercourse States;

• Strengthening the capacity of Member States to implement the Protocol through the harmonization of national laws and policies, national institutional development and training of personnel.

The Regional Water Policy and Strategy is to be implemented through a series of short-term water sector programs via the Regional Strategic Action Plan (RSAP).

RSAP 1 was implemented during the period 1999–2004 (SADC 2005), and had to establish an enabling environment for the integrated management of water resources in the region, so as to support of the achievement of other regional objectives. SADC implemented 31 of the 44 projects (see Table A.1) in the categories of:

Table A.1 Projects within the regional strategic action program 1 and 2

• Legislation, Policy and Strategic Planning;

• Capacity Building and Training;

• Awareness Creation, Consultation and Public Participation;

• Information Collection, Analysis, Management and Dissemination and Improved National and Trans-boundary River Basin Management, Planning and Co-ordination;

• Infrastructure Investment; and

• Stand alone—special priority areas.

Implementation of RSAP 1 clearly demonstrated that international cooperation is possible in the management of scarce resources. A good example is the revision and ratification of the Protocol on Shared Watercourses (1995–2003) which provides a framework to reach more detailed agreements (such as the Inco-Maputo Agreement). Another good example of international cooperation is the preparation of the Regional Water Policy. RSAP 1 furthermore showed that local communities can be mobilized and can have an impact on water resources planning.

RSAP 2 (2005–2010) The focus of the second phase was on water and development seated in projects and initiatives to be found in four strategic clusters (SADC 2005; 2006):

• Regional Water Resources Management, Planning and Development (assessment, monitoring, planning, operation);

• Infrastructure Development Support (Regional Strategic Water Infrastructure Development Program (RSWIDP); over 140 projects assessed—38 % in bulk water supply, dams, transfers, and hydropower;

• Water Governance (implementation of protocol, stakeholder participation, implementation of policy and strategy); and

• Capacity Building (skills training, academic IWRM training and research, support to WD, strengthening RBOs).