General Introduction

Abstract

This chapter introduces the theme of water scarcity reviewing the historical attention it has received since the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil up to the World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa and to the recent Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development which took place again in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The chapter argues that water scarcity should be distinguished from aridity because water scarcity describes the situation where the available water quantities are inadequate to meet normal activities even in areas outside deserts and other arid areas. Water scarcity can be caused by mismanagement of available water so that it is not available to users; mismanagement that ruins potable water so that it is unusable. While aridity cannot be reversed, water scarcity can be reversed through manipulation to improve water potability through wise usage, budgeting and efficient management of the available water, management that increases access and prevents pollution or excessive losses through evaporation. The analysis quotes and highlights principles and agreements reached during and after the conferences globally and regionally in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC).

There is still enough water for all of us – but only so long as we keep it clean, use it more wisely, and share it fairly

(Ban Ki-moon, UN Secretary General 2012)

Appendices

Appendix 1.1: Windhoek Waste Water Treatment

The famous statement “Africa is the cradle of mankind” applies to Windhoek, the city known as “the cradle of direct potable water reuse”. Throughout its existence, Windhoek has had to find innovative ways to ensure that the growth of the City can be sustained. In 1968 the Goreangab Water Reclamation plant was built by the City of Windhoek to reclaim water directly from domestic sewage effluent. Over the years the process was improved and the plant capacity extended to 2.9 mm per annum. Due to the fact that all naturally available water sources in and around Windhoek had been fully harnessed, the New Goreangab Reclamation Plant was constructed and commissioned in 2002. The plant comprises the latest available proven water treatment technology which ensures the total utilization of available effluent from domestic wastewater to guarantee the security of water supply for the future. The new plant has been based on extensive experience (30 years), research done locally, and on input from international experts to assure the compliance to the strictest water quality guidelines applied internationally.

The Windhoek Goreangab Operating Company (Pty) Ltd (WINGOC) and its shareholders are associated with the City of Windhoek in reclamation of potable water from waste water. They produce and supply potable water through total quality management. WINGOC treat the water from Goreangab Dam and sell the water to the City of Windhoek. The removal of waste is done by the City of Windhoek at Gamammas Water Care Treatment Plant. The City’s Goreangab Reclamation plant, which started to produce potable water from secondary sewage effluent in 1969, is the pioneer in direct potable water reclamation and currently supplies 25 % of the City’s drinking water demand. It has been shown over a period of 43 years that reclamation can indeed be the Blue Resource of the future.

Appendix 1.2: Water Scarcity and the MDGs

The way water scarcity issues are addressed impacts upon the successful achievement of most of the Millennium Development Goals ¹

• MDG 1: Access to water for domestic and productive uses (agriculture, industry, and other economic activities) has a direct impact on poverty and food security.

• MDG 2: Incidence of catastrophic but often recurrent events, such as droughts, interrupts educational attainment.

• MDG 3: Access to water, in particular in conditions of scarce resources, has important gender related implications, which affects the social and economic capital of women in terms of leadership, earnings and networking opportunities.

• MDGs 4 and 5: Equitable, reliable water resources management programmes reduce poor people’s vulnerability to shocks, which in turn gives them more secure and fruitful livelihoods to draw upon in caring for their children.

• MDG 6: Access to water, and improved water and wastewater management in human settlements, reduce transmission risks of mosquito-borne illnesses, such as malaria and dengue fever.

• MDG 7: Adequate treatment of wastewater contributes to less pressure on freshwater resources, helping to protect human and environmental health.

• MDG 8: Water scarcity increasingly calls for strengthened international cooperation in the fields of technologies for enhanced water productivity, financing opportunities, and an improved environment to share the benefits of scarce water management.

Appendix 1.3: An Example of Successful Trans-boundary Rivers Management in Southern Africa: ORASECOM

The Orange-Senqu River basin is the largest river basin in Africa south of the Zambezi River basin (Earle et al. 2005). This trans-boundary water resource covers large portions of South Africa and Lesotho as well as southern regions of Botswana and Namibia. Urban development over recent decades, and the corresponding development of water infrastructure have made the Orange-Senqu River basin ‘the most developed river basin in Southern Africa’ (Earle et al. 2005; Jacobs 2009).

The commission was established by the Governments of Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa through the “Agreement for the Establishment of the Orange-Senqu Commission” on 3 November 2000 in Windhoek, Namibia (Earle et al. 2005). ORASECOM is the first commission established following the regional ratification of the Revised Protocol on Shared Watercourses in the Southern African Development Community (Revised Protocol) in 2004. ORASECOM promotes the equitable and sustainable development of the resources of the Orange-Senqu River. ORASECOM provides a forum for consultation and coordination between the riparian states to promote integrated water resources management and development within the basin. The goals of ORASECOM are to:-

• Develop a comprehensive perspective of the basin;

• Study the present and planned future uses of the river system; and

• Determine the requirements for flow monitoring and flood management.

The highest body of ORASECOM is the Council, which is supported by various Task Teams ho which manage projects, and by a Secretariat. The Council serves as technical advisor to the he Parties on matters related to development, utilization and conservation of water resources.

The Council comprises delegations from each of the four member states. Each state delegates three representatives, drawn from its agency responsible for water affairs:

• Botswana: Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources

• Lesotho: Ministry of Natural Resources

• Namibia: Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry

• South Africa: Ministry of Water and Environmental Affairs.

ORASECOM is the only example of a River Basin Organization in SADC that is financially supported solely by the member states. The Orange-Senqu River basin provides an example of a river basin progressing towards cooperative management of trans-boundary water resources in SADC. These efforts are being supported by the development of a basin-wide Integrated Water Resources Management Plan.