Abstract
The aim of Chap. 2 is to review studies of the classroom as a general and social pedagogic context for learning in primary schools. This review begins with a few premises, namely that: during the majority of time that children spend in their classrooms, they are found in some form of peer-based group; cognitive and other learning practices are intimately connected to the child’s interactions with teachers and peers; and there are a number of experimental and naturalistic studies that provide evidence of effective and ineffective learning in classroom groups. Experimental studies usually draw upon co-operative and collaborative learning theories and show some positive effects for learning. But experimental studies do not necessarily draw information from the whole class or consider effects for all of the children in a class. Co-operative and collaborative learning studies show how social contexts can be set up to promote active (mainly cognitive) and interactive learning by children especially with regard to children’s collaborative talk. Naturalistic studies, on the other hand, focus on the whole class and have shown how learning opportunities may be hindered by social contexts found in classrooms. Groups of children are rarely asked to collaborate, cognitive learning tasks tend to be connected to teacher-child interaction and do not develop opportunities for peer-based learning. Children are rarely taught to work effectively within groups. ‘Classroom mapping’ studies are used to identify basic considerations for the understanding of a social pedagogy of classroom learning that include: the size and composition of pupil groups, interaction and working arrangements for groups, types of learning task and curricular constraints, and the role of the teacher is setting-up and working within the classroom environment.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsNotes
- 1.
Year levels in English primary schools include: Reception (children aged 4–5 years old); Year 1 (children aged 5–6); Year 2 (children aged 6–7); Year 3 (children aged 7–8); Year 4 (children aged 8–9); Year 5 (children aged 9–10) and Year 6 (children aged 10–11). For ease of reporting, we will refer to Year level through this and successive chapters.
- 2.
We also note that children spend proportions of their time as a whole class (storytime) and some children worked as individuals. The small, teacher-oriented group and paired peer-oriented group were most characteristic of classroom learning time.
- 3.
Once pupils were identified with special educational needs, there was an increased likelihood that a teaching assistant would be assigned to the child. That adult’s role would, most likely, be focused on the SEN child only or the group in which the SEN child was working (see Blatchford et al. 2012).
References
Adey, P., Robertson, A., & Venville, G. (2002). Effects of a cognitive acceleration programme on year 1 pupils. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(1), 1–25.
Ames, C. (1981). Competitive versus cooperative reward structures: The influence of individual and group performance factors on achievement attributions and affect. American Educational Research Journal, 18, 273–287.
Anderson, R. C., Chinn, C., Chang, J., Waggoner, M., & Yi, H. (1997). On the logical integrity of children’s arguments. Cognition and Instruction, 15(2), 135–167.
Baines, E. (2012). Grouping pupils by ability. In P. Adey & J. Dillon (Eds.), Bad education: Debunking myths in education. Maidenhead: Open University.
Baines, E., Blatchford, P., & Kutnick, P. (2003). Changes in grouping practices over primary and secondary school. International Journal of Educational Research, 39(1–2), 9–34.
Baines, E., Blatchford, P., & Kutnick, P. (2008). Pupil grouping for learning: Developing a social pedagogy of the classroom. In R. Gillies, A. Ashman & J. Terwel (Eds.), The teacher’s role in implementing co-operative learning in classrooms (pp. 55–72). New York: Springer.
Barron, B. (2003). When smart groups fail. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 12(3), 307–395.
Bennett, N., & Dunne, E. (1992). Managing classroom groups. Hemel Hempstead: Simon & Schuster Education.
Bennett, N., Desforges, C., Cockburn, A., & Wilkinson, B. (1984). The quality of pupil learning experiences. London: Erlbaum.
Blatchford, P., Kutnick, P., & Baines, E. (1999). The nature and use of classroom groups in primary schools. Final report to ESRC, held at British Library.
Blatchford, P., Baines, E., Kutnick, P., & Martin, C. (2001). Classroom contexts: Connections between class size and within class grouping. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 283–302.
Blatchford, P., Kutnick, P., Baines, E., & Galton, M. (2003). Towards a social pedagogy of classroom group work. International Journal of Educational Research, 39, 153–172.
Blatchford, P., Russell, A., & Webster, R. (2012). Reassessing the impact of teaching assistants: How research challenges practice and policy. Abingdon: Routledge.
Boaler, J. (2000). Exploring situated insights into research and learning. Journal for Research in Mathematical Education, 31(1), 113–119.
Bossert, S., Barnett, B., & Filby, N. (1985). Grouping and instructional organization. In P. Peterson, L. Wilkinson & M. Hallinan (Eds.), The social context of instruction. Orlando: Academic.
Cohen, E. G., & Intilli, J. K. (1981). Interdependence and management in bilingual classrooms. Final Report No. NIE-G-80-0217. Stanford: Stanford University, School of Education.
Cohen, E., & Lotan, R. (1995). Producing equal status interaction in the heterogeneous classroom. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 99–120.
Cowie, H. (1994). Co-operative group work: a perspective from the U.K. International Journal of Educational Research (special issue on co-operative learning in social contexts).
Cowie, H., & Rudduck, J. (1988). Learning together—Working together. In vol. 1: Cooperative group work—An overview and vol. 2: School and classroom studies. London: BP Educational Service.
Cowie, H., & Rudduck, J. (1990). Learning together—Working together. In vol. 1: co-operative group work in the multi-ethnic classroom. London: BP Educational Service.
Creemers, B. (1994). The effective classroom. London: Cassell.
Department for Education and Science (DfES). (2006). Education improvement partnerships. London: DfES.
Doise, W., & Mugny, G. (1984). The social development of the intellect. Oxford: Pergamon.
Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 392–431). New York: Macmillan.
Dreeben, R. (1984). First-grade reading groups: Their formation and change. In P. Peterson, L. Wilkinson & M. Hallinan (Eds.), The social context of instruction. Orlando: Academic.
Edwards, A. (1994). The curricular applications of classroom groups. In P. Kutnick & C. Rogers (Eds.), Groups in schools. London: Cassell.
Eggleston, J., Galton, M., & Jones, M. (1976). Processes and products of science teaching. London: Macmillan.
Forman, E. A., & Cazden, C. B. (1985). Exploring Vygotskian perspectives on education: The cognitive value of peer interaction. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives (pp. 323–347). New York: Cambridge University.
Galton, M. (1990). Grouping and groupwork. In C. Rogers & P. Kutnick (Eds.), The social psychology of the primary school. London: Routledge.
Galton, M., & Williamson, J. (1992). Groupwork in the primary school. London: Routledge.
Galton, M. J., Simon, B., & Croll, P. (1980). Inside the primary classroom. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Galton, M. J., Hargreaves, L., Comber, C., Wall, D., & Pell, A. (1999). Inside the primary classroom: 20 years on. London: Routledge.
Gillies, R. (2004). The effects of communication training on teachers’ and students’ verbal behaviours during cooperative learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 41, 257–279.
Gillies, R., & Kahn, A. (2009). Promoting reasoned argumentation, problem-solving and learning during small-group work. Cambridge Journal of Education, 39, 7–27.
Goodson, I. F., & Managan, J. M. (1995). Subject cultures and the introduction of classroom computers. British Educational Research Journal, 25(5), 613–628.
Hallam, S., & Toutounji, I. (1996). What do we know about the grouping of pupils by ability? London: Institute of Education.
Hallam, S., Ireson, J., & Davies, J. (2004). Primary pupils’ experiences of different types of grouping in school. British Journal of Educational Research, 30, 515–533.
Hastings, N., & Chantry, K. (2002). Reorganising primary classroom learning. Buckingham: Open University.
Hogan, K., Nastasi, B. K., & Pressley, M. (2000). Discourse patterns and collaborative scientific reasoning in peer and teacher-guided discussions. Cognition and Instruction, 17, 379–432.
Howe, C. (2010). Peer groups and children's development: Psychological and educational perspectives. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Howe, C., & Tolmie, A. (2003). Group work in primary school science: Discussion, consensus and guidance from experts. International Journal of Educational Research, 39(1–2), 51–72.
Howe, C., Tolmie, A., Duchak-Tanner, V., & Rattray, C. (2000). Hypothesis testing in science: Group consensus and the acquisition of conceptual and procedural knowledge. Learning and Instruction, 10(4), 361–391.
Ireson, J., & Hallam, S. (2001). Ability grouping in education. London: Sage.
Ireson, J., Clark, H., & Hallam, S. (2002). Constructing ability groups in the secondary school: Issues in practice. School Leadership and Management, 22, 163–176.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. (2003a). Joining together: Group theory and research. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (2003b). Student motivation in co-operative groups: Social interdependence theory. In R. Gillies & A. Ashman (Eds.), Co-operative learning: Social and intellectual outcomes of learning in groups. London: Routledge/Falmer.
Kazemi, E., & Stipek, D. (2000). Promoting conceptual thinking in four upper-elementary mathematics classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 102, 59–80.
King, A. (1999). Discourse patterns for mediating peer learning. In A. M. O’Donnell & A. King (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on peer learning (pp. 87–116). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C.-L. C. (1992). Meta-analytic findings on grouping programs. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36, 73–77.
Kutnick, P., & Berdondini, L. (2009). Can the enhancement of group working in classrooms provide a basis for effective communication in support of school-based cognitive achievement in classrooms of young learners? Cambridge Journal of Education, 39(1), 71–94.
Kutnick, P., & Jackson, A. (1996). Group work and computers: The effects of type of task on children’s performance. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 12, 162–171.
Kutnick, P., & Rogers, C. (1994) Groups in schools (pp. 216).London: Cassell.
Kutnick, P., & Kington, A. (2005). Children’s friendships and learning in school; cognitive enhancement through social interaction? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 1–19.
Kutnick, P., Blatchford, P., & Baines, E. (2002). Pupil groupings in primary school classrooms: Sites for learning and social pedagogy? British Educational Research Journal, 28(2), 189–208.
Kutnick, P., Blatchford, P., & Baines, E. (2005). Grouping of pupils in secondary school classrooms: Possible links between pedagogy and learning. Social Psychology of Education, 8(4), 349–374.
Kutnick, P., Colwell, J., & Canavan, J. (2006). Developing a relational approach to peer-based, pre-school experience; establishing bases for inclusion and educational achievement. Final report for the Esme Fairbairn Foundation.
Kutnick, P., Sebba, J., Blatchford, P., Galton, M., Thorp, J., Ota, C., Berdonini, L., & MacIntyre, H. (2005). An extended review of pupil grouping in schools. Research Report 688. Nottingham: DfES Publications.
Lewis, J., & Cowie, H. (1993). Cooperative group work: Promises and limitations a study of teachers’ values. Education Section Review, 17(2), 77–84.
Lou, Y., Abrami, P. C., Spence, J. C., Poulsen, C., Chambers, B., & d’Apollonia, S. (1996). Within-class grouping: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 423–458.
MacDonald, A. R., Meill, D., & Mitchell, L. (2002). An investigation of children’s musical collaborations: The effect of friendship and age. Psychology of Music, 30, 148–163.
Mercer, N. (2000). Words and minds: How we use language to think together. London: Routledge.
Mercer, N., & Littleton, K. (2007). Dialogue and development in children’s thinking—a socio-cultural approach. London: Routledge.
Mercer, N., Wegerif, R., & Dawes, L. (1999). Children’s talk and the development of reasoning in the classroom. British Educational Research Journal, 25(1), 95–111.
Mercer, N., Dawes, L., Wegerif, R., & Sams, C. (2004). Children’s talk and the development of reasoning in the classroom. British Educational Research Journal, 25, 95–111.
Merrett, F. (1994). Whole class and individualized approaches. In P. Kutnick & C. Rogers (Eds.), Groups in schools. London: Cassell.
Mirza, N. M., & Perret-Clermont, A.-N. (2009). Argumentation and education: Theoretical foundations and practices. New York: Springer.
Mortimore, P., Sammons, P., Stoll, L. D., & Ecob, R. (1988). School matters: The junior years. Wells: Open Books.
Norman, D. (1978). Notes towards a theory of complex learning. In A. M. Lesgold, J. W. Pelligrino, S. D. Fokkema & R. Glaser (Eds.), Cognitive psychology and education. Norwell: Plenum.
O’Donnell, A. M., & King, A. (Eds.). (1999). Cognitive perspectives on peer learning. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ofsted. (1998). Setting in primary schools. London: Ofsted.
Pepitone, E. (1980). Children in co-operation and competition. Lexington: Lexington Books.
Perret-Clermont, A.-N. (1980). Social interaction and cognitive development in children. London: Academic.
Peterson, P. E., Wilkinson, E. C., & Hallinan, M. (Eds.). (1985). The social context of instruction: Group organization and group processes. New York: Academic.
Plummer, G., & Dudley, P. (1993). Assessing children learning collaboratively. Chelmsford: Essex Development Advisory Service.
Resnick, L. (2000). Learning organizations for sustainable education reform. Key note address to First ESRC Teaching and Learning Research Programme, University of Leicester.
Reznitskaya, A., Kuo, L.-J., Clark, A.-M., Miller, B., Jadallah, M., Anderson, R., & Nguyen-Jahiel, K. (2009). Collaborative reasoning: A dialogic approach to group discussions. Cambridge Journal of Education, 39(1), 29–48.
Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. New York: Oxford University.
Rojas-Drummond, S., & Mercer, N. (2003). Scaffolding the development of effective collaboration and learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 39(1–2), 99–111.
Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research, 66, 181–221.
Roseth, C. J., Fang, F., Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2006). Effects of cooperative learning on middle school students: A meta-analysis. American Educational Research Association Annual Conference, San Francisco.
Salonen, P., Vauras, M., & Efklides, A. (2005). Social interaction: What can it tell us about metacognition and coregulation in learning? European Psychologist, 10, 199–208.
Schwarz, B. (2003). Collective reading of multiple texts in argumentative activities. International Journal of Educational Research, 39(1–2), 133–151.
Sebba, J., Byers, R., & Rose, R. (1995). Redefining the whole curriculum for pupils with learning difficulties. London: Fulton.
Sjard, A., & Kieran, C. (2001). Cognition as communication; rethinking learning-by-talking through multi-faceted analysis of students’ mathematical interactions. Mind, Culture & Activity, 8, 42–76.
Slavin, R. (1995). Cooperative learning (2nd Edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Slavin, R., Hurley, E. A., & Chamberlain, A. (2003). Cooperative learning and achievement: Theory and research. Handbook of Psychology, 177–198.
Teasley, S. D., & Roschelle, J. (1993). Constructing a joint problem space: The computer as a tool for sharing knowledge. In P. P. Lojoie & S. J. Derry (Eds.), Computers as cognitive tools (pp. 229–258). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Tharp, R., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing young minds to life: Teaching, learning and schooling in social context. New York: Cambridge University.
Tizard, B., Blatchford, P., Burke, J., Farquhar, C., & Plewis, I. (1988). Young children at school in the inner city. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Topping, K. (1994). Peer tutoring. In P. Kutnick & C. Rogers (Eds.), Groups in schools. London: Cassell.
Topping, K. (2005). Trends in peer learning. Educational Psychology, 25(6), 631–645.
Webb, N. (1989). Peer interaction and learning in small groups. International Journal of Educational Research, 13, 21–39.
Webb, N., & Mastergeorge, A. (2003). Promoting effective helping behaviour in peer directed groups. International Journal of Educational Research, 39(1–2), 73–97.
Webb, N., Franke, M. L., Tondra, D., Chan, A., Freund, D., Shein, P., & Melkonian, D. (2009). Explain to your partner: Teacher instructional practices and students’ dialogue in small groups. Cambridge Journal of Education, 39(1), 49–70.
Webb, N., Franke, M. L., Ing, M., Wong, J., Fernandez, C. H., Shin, N., & Turrow, A. C. (in press). Engaging with others’ mathematical ideas; interrelationships among student participation, teachers’ instructional practices and learning. International Journal of Educational Research.
Wood, D. (1998). How children think and learn: The social contexts of cognitive development(2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Wood, D., & Wood, H. (1996). Vygotsky, tutoring and learning. Oxford Review of Education, 22(1), 5–16.
Younger, M. Warrington, M., & Williams, J., (1999). The gender gap and classroom interactions; reality and rhetoric. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 20, 325–344.
Zajac, R., & Hartup, W. W. (1997). Friends as coworkers: Research review and classroom implications. Elementary School Journal, 98, 3–13.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kutnick, P., Blatchford, P. (2014). Groups and Classrooms. In: Effective Group Work in Primary School Classrooms. Professional Learning and Development in Schools and Higher Education, vol 8. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6991-5_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6991-5_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-6990-8
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-6991-5
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawEducation (R0)