Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

School Class Composition and Student Development in Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Domains: Longitudinal Analyses of Primary School Students in Germany

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Integration and Inequality in Educational Institutions

Abstract

The paper discusses whether and how social and ethnic school class composition may affect students’ cognitive and non-cognitive development over time. High-performing students, who often tend to come from more privileged backgrounds, may provide opportunities for weaker students to enhance their competence development and serve as role models for behavior appropriate to the school setting. In contrast, a higher share of children with a migration background at a school or in a school class may lead teachers to lower their requirements to adapt to the level of the non-native speakers’ language skills. Moreover, a higher proportion of immigrants in a class increases children’s opportunities and incentives to use their language of origin in and around school. To test these different hypotheses, we analyze panel data on the impact of school class composition on students’ changes in cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes, namely vocabulary, numeracy, and effort. The data are derived from the BiKS project (Educational Processes, Competence Development and Selection Decisions in Preand Elementary School Age) and have been collected in two German states since 2006. The panel study provides detailed information on almost 2,400 students from over 150 classes and includes assessment tests, student’s and teacher’s questionnaires, and telephone interviews with parents. The major result is that school class composition has little to no effect if initial measures on vocabulary, numeracy or effort are taken into account. This means, that if we shift from a purely cross-sectional to a value-added model from grade 3 to 4. One exception is the negative correlation between the share of migrants in a class and the individual progress in numeracy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Advantaged neighbors can also have positive effects since they can provide more information, including, for instance, about job opportunities. This has been researched in labor market studies, where weak ties are especially relevant (Granovetter 1973). In a neighborhood where almost everyone is unemployed, there is hardly anyone who can tell other people about a job or trainee position, or who can recommend a person to the head of a company (Wilson 1987). For educational careers, information on the supply and quality of different schools might also be important for the decision-making.

  2. 2.

    A third important factor regarding the language acquisition of non-natives is efficiency, which depends mainly on intellectual capacities and age at immigration. We ignore these aspects in the discussion, as both characteristics are individual-specific and almost all of today’s elementary school children with a migration background were born in Germany or arrived in Germany before school enrolment.

  3. 3.

    Only North Rhine-Westphalia has eliminated restriction in elementary school choice.

  4. 4.

    BiKS is the acronym for the German title “Bildungsprozesse, Kompetenzentwicklung und Selektionsentscheidungen im Vor- und Grundschulalter”, which means in English “Educational Processes, Competence Development and Selection Decisions in Pre- and Elementary School Age”.

  5. 5.

    Another advantage of experiments is that the range, the “strength” of the treatment effect can be administered. For e.g., in observational education studies we often have classes with no to some students with migration background, but only a few classes with (nearly) all students having this characteristic. If there are threshold effects starting at a higher proportion of students with migration background, the effects would not be discovered if the sample consists (almost) only of classes below such a threshold.

  6. 6.

    ‘Trivial’ because in the case of real cross-sectional data, regressing a student variable (level 1) on means of this variable for each school class in a hierarchical linear model results in completely explained variance at level 2. In the ‘constant only model,’ the variance at level 2 is based on the different means of the dependent variable per school class and the total average between all school classes. As students’ effort in grades 3 and 4 correlates, the aggregate measure of grade 3 should significantly correlate with students’ efforts in grade 4, too.

References

  • Alba, R.D, J. Handl, and W. Müller. 1998. Ethnic inequalities in the German school system. In Paths to inclusion. The integration of migrants in the United States and Germany, eds. P. Schuck, and R. Münz, 115–154. New York, Oxford: Berghahn Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allison, P.D. 2001. Missing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ammermueller, A., and J. Pischke. 2009. Peer effects in European primary schools: Evidence from the progress in international reading literacy study. Journal of Labor Economics 27(3): 315–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berendes, K, D. Fey, T. Linberg, S.E. Wenz, H. Roßbach, Schneider, Thorsten, and S. Weinert. 2011. Kindergarten and elementary school. In Education as a lifelong process—the German national educational panel study (NEPS) eds. H. Blossfeld, H. Roßbach, and J. von Maurice. (Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft; Special Issue 14) 203–216. Heidelberg: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernburg, J.G., T. Thorlindsson, and I.D. Sigfusdottir. 2009. Relative Deprivation and adolescent outcomes in Iceland: A mulilevel test. Social Forces 87(3): 1223–1250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biedinger, N, and B. Becker. 2010. Frühe ethnische Bildungsungleichheit: Der Einfluss des Kindergartenbesuchs auf die deutsche Sprachfähigkeit und die allgemeine Entwicklung. In Vom Kindergarten bis zur Hochschule. Die Generierung von ethnischen und sozialen Disparitäten in der Bildungsbiographie, eds. B. Becker, and D. Reimer. 49–79. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brännström, L. 2008. Making their mark: The effects of neighbourhood and upper secondary school on educational achievement. European Sociological Review 24(4): 463–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bygren, M., and R. Szulkin. 2010. Ethnic environment during childhood and the educational attainment of immigrant children in Sweden. Social Forces 88(3): 1305–1330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J.S. 1966. Equality of educational opportunity. Washington: U.S. Office of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J.S. 1988. Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology 94(Supplement): S95–S120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cortina, J.M. 1993. What Is Coefficient Alpha? An Examination of Theory and Applications. Journal of Applied Psychology 78(1): 98–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crane, J. 1991. The epidemic theory of ghettos and neighborhood effects on dropping out and teenage childbearing. The American Journal of Sociology 96(5): 1226–1259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ditton, H. 2010. Differentielle Leistungsentwicklung in der zweiten Hälfte der Grundschulzeit. Zeitschrift für Grundschulforschung 3(1): 83–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, G.J, and S. Raudenbush. (2001). Getting Context Right in Quantitative Studies of Child Development. In The Well-Being of Children and Families. Research and Data Needs, ed. A. Thornton. 356–383. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esser, H. 2006. Sprache und Integration. Die sozialen Bedingungen und Folgen des Spracherwerbs von Migranten. New York: Frankfurt am Main Campus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fasang, A.E., W. Mangino, and H. Brückner. 2010. Parental social capital and educational attainment. CIQLE working paper 2010-01, New Haven: Center for Research on Inequalities and the Life Course (CIQLE). download at http://www.yale.edu/ciqle/CIQLEPAPERS/CIQLE_WP_2010_1.pdf.

  • Festinger, L. 1954. A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations 7(2): 117–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith, P.R. 2009. Schools or neighborhoods or both? Race and ethnic segregation and educational attainment. Social Forces 87(4): 1913–1942.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gölitz, D., T. Roick, and M. Hasselhorn. 2006. DEMAT 4. Deutscher Mathematiktest für vierte Klassen. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Granovetter, M.S. 1973. The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology 78(6): 1360–1380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helbig, M. 2010. Neighborhood does matter! Soziostrukturelle Nachbarschaftscharakteristika und Bildungserfolg. Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 62(4): 665–679.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kristen, C. 2002. Hauptschule, Realschule oder Gymnasium? Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 54(3): 534–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kristen, C. (2008). Schulische Leistungen von Kindern aus türkischen Familien am Ende der Grundschulzeit. Befunde aus der IGLU-Studie. In Migration und Integration. 48. Sonderheft der Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, ed. F. Kalter, 230–251. Wiesbaden: VS-Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarsfeld, P.F., and R.K. Merton. 1954. Friendship as Social Process. In Freedom and control in modern society, ed. M. Berger, T. Abel, and C. Page, 18–66. New York: Octagon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leventahl, T., and J. Brooks-Gunn. 2000. The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neigborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin 126(2): 309–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H.W., U. Trautwein, O. Lüdtke, and O. Köller. 2008. Social comparison and big-fish-little-pond effects on self-concept and efficacy perceptions: Role of generalized and specific others. Journal of Educational Psychology 100(3): 510–524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Massey, D.S., and N.A. Denton. 1993. American apartheid. Segregation and the making of the underclass. Cambrige (MA), London: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, S.E., and C. Jencks. 1989. Growing up in poor neighborhoods: How much does it matter? Science 243(4897): 1441–1445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R.K., and A.S. Rossi. 1968. Contributions to the Theory of Reference Group Behavior. In Social theory and social structure, ed. R.K. Merton, 279–440. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD eds. 2006. Where immigrant students succeed—A comparative review of performance and engagement in PISA 2003. Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portes, A., and D. MacLeod. 1996. Educational progress of children of immigrants: The roles of class, ethnicity, and school context. Sociology of Education 69(4): 255–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riedel, A., K. Schneider, C. Schuchart, and H. Weishaupt. 2010. School choice in German primary schools: How binding are school districts? Journal for Educational Research Online 2(1): 94–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roick, T., D. Gölitz, and M. Hasselhorn. 2004. DEMAT 3+. Deutscher Mathematiktest für dritte Klassen. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Royston, P. 2009. Multiple imputation of missing values: further update of ice, with an emphasis on categorical variables. Stata Journal 9(3): 466–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, D.B. 1987. Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. New York: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Stanat, P. 2006. Schulleistungen von Jugendlichen mit Migrationshintergrund. Die Rolle der Zusammensetzung der Schülerschaft. In Herkunftsbedingte Disparitäten im Bildungswesen. Differenzielle Bildungsprozesse und Probleme der Verteilungsgerechtigkeit, eds. J. Baumert, P. Stanat, and R. Watermann. Vertiefende Analysen im Rahmen von PISA 2000 683–743. Wiesbaden: VS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistisches Bundesamt (StaBu) eds. 2009. Bildung und Kultur: Private Schulen. Fachserie 11, Reihe 1.1, Wiesbaden.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Slik, F.W.P., G.W.J.M. Driessen, and K.L.J. de Bot. 2006. Ethnic and socioeconomic class composition and language proficiency. A longitudinal multilevel examination in Dutch elementary schools. European Sociological Review 22(3): 293–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Tubergen, F., and M. Kalmijn. 2005. Destination-language proficiency in cross-national perspective: A study of immigrant groups in nine western countries. American Journal of Sociology 110(5): 1412–1457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Maurice, J., C. Artelt, H. Blossfeld, G. Faust, H. Rossbach, and S. Weinert. 2007. Bildungsprozesse, Kompetenzentwicklung und Formation von Selektionsentscheidungen im Vor- und Grundschulalter: Überblick über die Erhebungen in den Längsschnitten BiKS-3-8 und BiKS-8-12 in den ersten beiden Projektjahren. PsyDok [Online] 2007/1008. psydok.sulb.uni-saarland.de/volltexte/2007/1008/.

  • Weiß, R.H. 1998. CFT 20 - Grundintelligenztest Skala 2 mit Wortschatztest (WS) und Zahlenfolgetest (ZF), 4. Aufl. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, W.J. 1987. The truly disadvantaged. The inner city, the uncerclass, and public policy. Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The chapter is the result of work undertaken as part of the Subproject 7 of the research group BiKS (‘Bildungsprozesse, Kompetenzentwicklung und Selektionsentscheidungen im Vor- und Grundschulalter’—Educational Processes, Competence Development and Selection Decisions in Pre- and Elementary School Age) based at the University of Bamberg, Germany. It is funded by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation), project number BL 381/7-2.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Universität Leipzig, Institut für Soziologie, Beethovenstraße 15, D-04107, Leipzig, Germany

    Thorsten Schneider

Authors
  1. Thorsten Schneider
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thorsten Schneider .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Inst. of Empirical & Applied Sociology, University of Bremen, Wiener Strasse/Celsiustrasse FVG, Bremen, 28334, Bremen, Germany

    Michael Windzio

Appendix

Appendix

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Schneider, T. (2013). School Class Composition and Student Development in Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Domains: Longitudinal Analyses of Primary School Students in Germany. In: Windzio, M. (eds) Integration and Inequality in Educational Institutions. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6119-3_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation