Abstract
The states that jointly manage Antarctica were not yet able to reach consensus on a number of specific Antarctic tourism management issues. While recognizing that many factors influence the international decision-making process, this chapter aims to explore one rarely discussed philosophical factor that may be of great significance for understanding the difficulties in reaching consensus: the possible differences in the human-nature relationship among the Consultative Parties (CPs) and expert organizations. Based on an explorative analysis of relevant documents, it is concluded that CPs and expert organizations consistently reject the “mastery” attitude, both in general Antarctic policy instruments and in tourism-specific documents. The relevant documents relating to two subthemes (the acceptability of permanent land-based tourism facilities and large-scale adventure or sporting events) show that there is a strong tendency to use “rational arguments” that do not reflect human-nature relationships; however, a closer look reveals that underneath these relatively neutral positions, substantially different human-nature attitudes appear to be hidden. These differences may not block consensus regarding general policy statements on Antarctic tourism, as these statements leave sufficient space for different interpretations; however, different attitudes towards nature may well constitute a hurdle in reaching consensus on concrete management issues. It is most likely that CPs with different human-nature relationships have different views on what the specific “values” of Antarctica are and how these values could best be protected, and, consequently, it is also most likely that these CPs have different opinions on what norms should be set in respect of specific tourism developments. This makes it understandable that the approach of the ATCM to focus strongly on (the desirability of) norm setting is not always successful. Underlining the explorative nature of this study, the authors would recommend further research on human-nature relationships in the Antarctic tourism context. More knowledge and consciousness of differences in human-nature attitudes might invite stakeholders to search for management solutions based on a greater understanding of each other’s convictions.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
ASOC (2006a) Managing Antarctic tourism: a critical review of site-specific guidelines. Information Paper 65 presented by the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXIX, Edinburgh, UK
ASOC (2006b) Strategic issues posed by commercial tourism in the Antarctic treaty area. Information Paper 120 presented by the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXIX, Edinburgh, UK
ASOC (2008) A decade of Antarctic tourism: status, change, and actions needed. Information Paper 41 presented by the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXXI, Kyiv, Ukraine
AT (1959) Antarctic treaty. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/documents/ats/treaty_original.pdf
AT Secretariat (2011) Antarctic treaty Secretariat. Available at: www.ats.aq
ATCM (1994) Tourist guidelines. Recommendation XVIII-1 adopted at the XVIII Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/documents/recatt/Att245_e.pdf
ATCM (2005) Final report of the XXVIII Antarctic treaty consultative meeting. Stockholm, Sweden. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=e
ATCM (2006) Final report of the XXIX Antarctic treaty consultative meeting, Edinburgh, UK. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=e
ATCM (2007a) Final report of the XXX Antarctic Treaty consultative meeting, New Delhi, India. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=e
ATCM (2007b) Long-term effects of tourism. Resolution 5 adopted at the XXX Antarctic treaty consultative meeting. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/info_measures_list_filtered.aspx?lang=e&cat=14
ATCM (2008) Final report of the XXXI Antarctic treaty consultative meeting. Kiev, Ukraine. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=e
ATCM (2009a) General principles of Antarctic tourism. Resolution 7 adopted at the XXXII Antarctic treaty consultative meeting. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/info_measures_list_filtered.aspx?lang=e&cat=14
ATCM (2009b) Final report of the XXXII Antarctic treaty consultative meeting. Baltimore, United States. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=e
ATCM (2010) Final report of the XXXIII Antarctic treaty consultative meeting. Punta del Este, Uruguay. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=e
ATCM (2011) Draft final report of the XXXIII Antarctic treaty consultative meeting. Buenos Aires, Argentina. The Final Report will become available at: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=e
Australia (2005) Protection of Antarctica’s intrinsic values: policy on non-governmental activities. Working paper 38 presented at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXVIII. Stockholm, Sweden
Basberg BL (2005) Perspectives on the economic history of the Antarctic region. Discussion paper SAM 18–2005. Institutt for Samfunnsøkonomi, Bergen
Bastmeijer K (2003) The Antarctic environmental protocol and its domestic legal implementation. Kluwer Law International, The Hague
Bastmeijer K (2011) A long term strategy for Antarctic tourism: the key to decision making within the Antarctic Treaty System? In: Lück M, Maher P, Stewart E (eds) Polar tourism: human, environmental and governance dimensions. Cognizant Communication, Elmsford
Bastmeijer K, Roura R (2004) Regulating Antarctic tourism and the precautionary principle. Am J Int Law 98(4):763–781
Bastmeijer K, Lamers M, Harcha J (2008) Permanent land-based facilities for tourism in Antarctica: the need for regulation. Rev Eur Commun Int Environ Law (RECIEL) 17(1):84–99
Beeby C (1990) The convention on the regulation of Antarctic mineral resource activities and its future. In: Herr RA, Hall HR, Haward MG (eds) Antarctica’s future: continuity or change? Australian Institute of International Affairs, Hobart, pp 47–60
Blay SKN (1992) Current developments, new trends in the protection of the Antarctic environment: the 1991 Madrid Protocol. Am J Int Law 86:377–399
CCAMLR (1980) Convention on the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/documents/ats/ccamlr_e.pdf
CCAS (1972) Convention for the conservation of Antarctic seals. Available at: http://www.ats.aq/documents/recatt/Att076_e.pdf
Chen J (1995) Of agriculture’s first disobedience and its fruit. Vanderbilt Law Rev 48(5):1262–1311
Chile (2009). The effect of marathons held on the Antarctic continent. Working Paper 54 presented at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXXII. Baltimore, United States
Cliteur P (2005) De filosofie van dierenrechten. In: Braeckman K, De Reuver B, Vervisch T (eds) Ethiek van DNA tot 9/11. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, pp 135–159
CRAMRA (1988). Convention on the regulation of Antarctic mineral resource activities. Available at: http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/entri/texts/acrc/cramra.txt.html
De Groot M, Drenthen M, De Groot WT (2011) Public visions on the human/nature relationship and their implications for environmental ethics. Environ Ethics 33(1)
Diamond J (1992) The third chimpanzee: the evolution and future of the human animal. Harper Collins Publishers, New York
Diamond J (2004) Collapse: how societies choose to fail or succeed. Viking, New York
Enzenbacher D (2007) Antarctic tourism policy-making: current challenges and future prospects. In: Triggs G, Riddell A (eds) Antarctica: legal and environmental challenges for the future. The British Institute of International and Comparative Law, London, pp 155–189
France (2006). Establishment of ‘areas of special tourist interest’. Working Paper 18 presented at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXIX. Edinburgh, UK
Germany (2005). The admissibility of land-based tourism in Antarctica under international law. Information Paper 20 presented at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXVIII, Stockholm, Sweden
Haase D, Lamers M, Amelung B (2009) Self-regulation of tourism in Antarctica: exploring the conditions for success and failure. J Sustain Tour 17(4):411–430
Harrison P (1999) Subduing the earth: Genesis 1, early modern science, and the exploitation of nature. J Relig 79(1):86–109
Hayton RD (1960) The Antarctic settlement of 1959. Am J Int Law 54:349–371
Headland RK (2009) A chronology of Antarctic exploration: a synopsis of events and activities from the earliest times until the international polar year 2002–2009. Bernard Quaritch Ltd, London
Heap JA (1990) Antarctic sovereignty: a source of stress? In: Herr RA, Hall HR, Haward MG (eds) Antarctica’s future. Tasmanian Government Printer, Hobart, pp 181–187
Holdgate MW (1987) Regulated development and conservation of Antarctic resources. In: Triggs GD (ed) The Antarctic treaty regime: law, environment and resources. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 128–142
IAATO (2004) Overview summarizing the terms of reference. Paper#12 presented at the Antarctic treaty meeting of experts. Tromso, Norway
IAATO (2011) Membership directory. Website of the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators. http://apps.iaato.org/iaato/directory/list.faces. Accessed on 8 Sept 2011
Lamers M, Gelter H (2011) Diversification of Antarctic tourism: the case of a scuba diving expedition. Polar Rec 48:280–290 (FirstView)
Minteer BA, Manning RE (2005) An appraisal of the critique of anthropocentrism and three lesser known themes in Lynn White’s “the historical roots of our ecologic crisis”. Organ Environ 18:163–176
Netherlands and United Kingdom (2011) Antarctic tourism: towards a strategic and pro-active approach via an inventory of outstanding questions. Information Paper 21 presented at the Antarctic treaty consultative meeting XXXIII, Buenos Aires, Argentina
New Zealand (2005) Land-based tourism in Antarctica. Working Paper 12 presented at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXVIII. Stockholm, Sweden
Parkes G (2000) Precautionary fisheries management: the CCAMLR approach. Mar Policy 24:83–91
Pearson M, Stehberg R (2006) Nineteenth century sealing sites on Rugged Island, South Shetland Islands. Polar Rec 42:335–347
Protocol (1991) Protocol on environmental protection to the Antarctic treaty. Madrid, 4 October 1991. Retrieved 16 Feb 2011, from http://www.ats.aq/e/ats_protocol.htm
Schouten M (2011) Vormen van natuurbeheer en het behoud van biodiversiteit. Presentation at the D66 Conference ‘Hoe verder met een duurzame natuur?’ Arnhem, 1 oktober 2011
Schrijvers P (2008) De Natuur van de Dingen. Historische Uitgeverij, Amsterdam
Splettstoesser J (2000) IAATO’s stewardship of the Antarctic environment: a history of tour operator’s concern for a vulnerable part of the world. Int J Tour Res 2:47–55
Steenbakker P (1999) Benedictus de Spinoza (1632–1677), een overzicht. Filosofie 6:4–14
Stonehouse B, Crosbie K (1995) Tourist impacts and management in the Antarctic peninsula area. In: Hall CM, Johnston M (eds) Polar tourism. Wiley, New York
Thomas K (1983) Man and the natural world, changing attitudes in England (1500–1800). Allen Lane/Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth
USA (2007) Approaches to tourism policy – next steps. Working Paper 6 presented at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXX, New Delhi, India
Van den Born R (2007) Thinking nature: everyday philosophy of nature in the Netherlands. PhD dissertation at the Radboud University Nijmegen. Available at: http://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/2066/55991/1/55991.pdf
Vicuña FO (1996) The regime of Antarctic marine living resources. In: Francioni F, Scovazzi T (eds) International law for Antarctica. Kluwer Law International, The Hague, pp 127–157
Wells S (2010) Pandora’s seed: the unforeseen cost of civilization. Random House Publishers, New York
White L (1967) The historical roots of our ecologic crisis. Science 155:1203–1207
Zweers W (1995) Participeren aan de natuur; ontwerp voor een ecologisering van het wereldbeeld. Jan van Arkel, Amsterdam
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bastmeijer, K., Lamers, M. (2013). Reaching Consensus on Antarctic Tourism Regulation. In: Müller, D., Lundmark, L., Lemelin, R. (eds) New Issues in Polar Tourism. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5884-1_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5884-1_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-5883-4
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-5884-1
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)