Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

A Goal-Oriented Approach to Forest Landscape Restoration pp 93–128Cite as

Managing Forest Stand Structures to Enhance Conservation of the Amur Tiger (Panthera tigris altaica)

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: World Forests ((WFSE,volume 16))

Abstract

China undertook a Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) between 1998 and 2010 to prevent soil erosion, desertification, and the decline of natural forest resources. This paper uses one of the most highly profiled species among the World’s Red List, the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) as an indicator species to demonstrate that conservation of biodiversity could be enhanced by managing the forest structures in northeastern China during and after NFPP. We first review the conceptual model of forest stand dynamics and show how stand structure changes can impact wildlife populations based on multiple cases from around the world. Second, we review the ongoing national NFPP and the past management and harvesting history of forests in Northeast China and Inner Mongolia. Third, we propose a new approach to the conservation of this tiger that complements other efforts as part of the next step in implementing NFPP and subsequent forest restoration programs. We hypothesize that open and savanna forest structures that have a documented positive impact on the amount and quality of forest floor vegetation and thus elevate the carrying capacity for ungulates herds also have a positive cascading effect on the tiger population. Therefore, the forest with a mixture of open and dense canopies will be the best since it overall provides the highest carrying capacity (food and shelter) for the prey of the tiger. Through estimating the Amur tiger’s carrying capacity and minimum home range in different forest structures and examining the current forest conditions in northeastern China, we conclude that the majority of the forests there are in the dense structure and the endangerment of the Amur tiger is caused in part by a shortage of forest stand structures suitable for its prey. Consequently, to enhance the Amur tiger’s population and other species, an additional step is to manage the forest to ensure that an appropriate diversity of stand structures are maintained to elevate the forest landscape carrying capacity of the tiger’s prey. Forests managed in this way may also reduce the human-tiger conflict caused by the tiger’s entering populated areas searching for domestic prey since wild prey may not be easily found in the current dense forests. Yet cautions need to be made because the proactive management may bring greater hunting opportunities and so must be accompanied by a strong commitment of controlling hunting.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

AUM:

Animal Unit Month

FRA:

Forest Resources Assessment

GIS:

Geographic Information System

IUCN:

the International Union for Conservation of Nature

km:

kilometer

MODIS:

Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

NFPP:

the Natural Forest Protection Program

UN FAO:

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

References

  • Angermeier PL (2000) The natural imperative for biological conservation. Conserv Biol 14:373–381

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Begon M, Harper JL, Townsend CR (1996) Ecology: individuals, populations, and communities, 3rd edn. Blackwell Science, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  • Canby P (2005) The cat came back: alpha predators and the new wilderness. Harper’s Mag 310:95–102

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll C, Miquelle DG (2006) Spatial viability analysis of Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica in the Russian Far East: the role of protected areas and landscape matrix in population persistence. J Appl Ecol 43:1056–1068

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen P (2004) Natural forest protection: an overview abroad and a review at home. J Beijing For Univ 3:50–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell JH (1978) Diversity in tropical rain forest and coral reefs. Science 199:1302–1310

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conniff R (2009) Can China save the Amur tiger? J Sch Yale For Environ Stud 2009(5–11):37

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook JG, Irwin LL, Bryant LD et al (1998) Relations of forest cover and condition of elk: a test of the thermal cover hypothesis in summer and winter. Wildl Monogr 141:5–61

    Google Scholar 

  • DAOW (Daxinganling Administrative Official Website) (2007) General information of Daxinganling Forestry Company. http://dxal.gov.cn/zyj/E_ReadNews.asp?NewsID=131. Accessed 3 Mar 2008

  • Dema T (2010) Human-wildlife conflict under the shadow of a big cat: residents live uneasily with a tigress in their midst. In: Kuensel (Saturday August 21, p15), vol. Saturday August 21, 2010, Thimphu

    Google Scholar 

  • Deng W, Zhang P, Zhang B (2004) Development report on northeast region. Science Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan S (2000) Why do elk seek shelter? the case against the need for thermal cover. PNW Sci Find 22:1–6

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations) (2000) Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA 2000). Global Land Cover Characterization USGS http://edc2.usgs.gov/glcc/fao/index.php

  • Feldhamer GA (2007) Mammalogy: adaptation, diversity, ecology, 3rd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher JT, Wilkinson L (2005) The response of mammals to forest fire and timber harvest in the North American boreal forest. Mamm Rev 35:51–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuller TK, Sievert PR (2001) Carnivore demography and the consequences of changes in prey availability. In: Gittleman JL, Funk SM, Macdonald D et al (eds) Carnivore conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 163–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman JL, Harvey PH (1982) Carnivore home-range size, metabolic needs and ecology. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 10:57–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross L (2005) Why not the best? How science failed the Florida Panther. PloS Biol 3:1525–1531

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gurung B, Smith JLD, McDougal C et al (2008) Factors associated with human-killing tigers in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Biol Conserv 141:3069–3078

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez RJ, Carey AB (1985) Ecology and management of the spotted owl in the Pacific Northwest. Series

    Google Scholar 

  • Han X (2011) The forest stand structures in northeastern China; their potential effects on the suitability of forests for animals, plants, and other values; and their possible relationships to Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) conservation. Doctoral Dissertation. PhD. School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven

    Google Scholar 

  • Han X, Oliver CD, Ge J et al (2007) Could forest management that ensures a balance of stand structures enhance biodiversity conservation in Northeast China’s Natural Forest Protection Program need? In: Stanturf JA (ed) IUFRO conference on forest landscape restoration, Korea Forest Research Institute, Seoul, Korea, pp 40–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Hao Z, Wang Q, Dai L (1999) The importance of the national programme for natural forests conservation on biodiversity conservation in northeast state owned forest areas of China. In: Xu Z (ed) China’s biodiversity conservation toward the 21st century. China Forestry Press, Beijing, pp 21–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Heady HF, Child RD (1994) Rangeland ecology & management. Westview Press, Boulder

    Google Scholar 

  • Herfindal I, Linnell JDC, Odden J et al (2005) Prey density, environmental productivity and home-range size in the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). J Zool 265:63–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HFSDI (Heilongjiang Forestry Survey and Design Institute) (2001) NFPP implementation scheme for Heilongjiang province. Issued by the Forestry Bureau of Heilongjiang Province. No. G00001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann RR (1989) Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants – a comparative view of their digestive-system. Oecologia 78:443–457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hornocker MG, Quigley HB, Miquelle DG et al (1998) Final report to the SAVE THE TIGER FUND at the national fish and wildlife foundation: ecology and conservation of the Siberian tiger. Series Hornocker Wildlife Institute Moscow, Idaho

    Google Scholar 

  • Hull RB, Robertson DP, Richer D et al (2002) Assumptions about ecological scale and nature knowing best hiding in environmental decisions. Conserv Ecol 6:2

    Google Scholar 

  • IMFSDI (Inner Mongolia Forestry Survey and Design Institute) (2001) NFPP implementation scheme for Inner Mongolia. Issued by the Inner Mongolia People’s Government. No. 0501141

    Google Scholar 

  • IUCN (2007) IUCN Red List of threatened species. http://www.iucnredlist.org. Accessed 10 Sept 2012

  • Jedrzejewska B, Jedrzejewski W (2005) Large carnivores and ungulates in European temperate forest ecosystems: bottom-up and top-down control. In: Ray JC, Redford KH, Steneck RS et al (eds) Large carnivores and the conservation of biodiversity. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp 230–246

    Google Scholar 

  • JFSDI (Jilin Forestry Survey and Design Institute) (2002) NFPP implementation scheme for Jilin province. Issued by the Forestry Bureau of Jilin Province. No. 2001016

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson DH, O’Neil TA (2001) Wildlife-habitat relationships in Oregon and Washington. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplanov LG (1948a) Tigers in Sikhote-Alin. In: Tiger, red deer and moose. O-vo Ispyt. Prir., Moscow

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplanov LG (1948b) Tigr, izyubr’, los’ (Tiger (Felix tigris), Manchurian Wapiti (Cervus elaphus xanthopygus), and Moose (Alces alces)). MOIP, Moskva, Izd

    Google Scholar 

  • Karanth KU, Stith BM (1999) Prey depletion as a critical determinant of tiger population viability. In: Seidensticker J, Christie S, Jackson P (eds) Riding the tiger: tiger conservation in human-dominated landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 100–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Karanth KU, Nichols JD, Kumar NS et al (2004) Tigers and their prey: predicting carnivore densities from prey abundance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:4854–4858

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kerley L (2003) A final report to SAVE THE TIGER FUND: scent dog monitoring of Amur tiger-II. (2002-0301-016) Lazovsky State Nature Zapovednik. Lazo, Primorski Region, Russia. http://www.nfwf.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Final_Reports3&TEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=8629. Accessed 10 Sept 2012

  • Kostyack J, Hill K, Fuller MK (2006) Science behind Panther decisions discredited. News &Views. http://www.nwf.org/news/story.cfm?pageId=3DDF4881-65BF-09FE-B779B9AA9C8D66CF. Accessed 21 Sept 2006

  • Lei J (2005) Forest resources of China. China Forestry Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Li L (1999) Shaping and expanding of the agricultural area is Heilongjiang Basin during the Qing Dynasty. Collections of essays on Chinese historical geography 3:201–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Li W (2003) Observation of roe deers’ ecological habits and analysis of their food. J Liaoning For Sci Technol 5:16–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Li Z (2008) The land use pattern and dynamics of Amur tiger’s distribution area. In: College of life sciences. Beijing Normal University, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Li T, Jiang J, Wu Z (2001) Survey on Amur tigers in Jilin province (in Chinese). Acta Theriol Sin 21:1–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma Y (1998) Panthera tigris. In: Wang S (ed) China red data book of endangered animals, vol Mamalia. Science Press, Beijing, pp 119–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma Y (2000) Amur tiger is filled, cattle is lost. Electronic Xinhua Daily, p 005

    Google Scholar 

  • Marquis DA (1975) The Allegheny hardwood forests of Pennsylvania. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NE-15. 32 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matyushkin EN, Pikunov DG, Dunishenko YM et al (1996) Numbers, distribution, and habitat status of the Amur tiger in the Russian Far East: ‘Express-report’. Final report to the USAID Russian Far East Environmental Policy and Technology Project, USAID

    Google Scholar 

  • McNab BK (1963) Bioenergetics and determination of home range size. Am Nat 97:133–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNaughton SJ, Oesterheld M, Frank DA et al (1989) Ecosystem-level patterns of primary productivity and herbivory in terrestrial habitats. Nature 341:101–105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meijaard E, Sheil D, Nasi R et al (2005) Life after logging: reconciling wildlife conservation and production forestry in Indonesian Borneo. Center for International Forestry Research, Jakarta

    Google Scholar 

  • Miquelle DG, Smirnov EN, Merrill TW et al (1999) Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey. In: Seidensticker J, Christie S, Jackson P (eds) Riding the tiger: tiger conservation in human-dominated landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 71–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Molles MC (2002) Ecology: concepts and applications, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgantini LE, Woodard PM, Eslinger D (1994) Logging and elk in the Bighorn Creek Valley in Western Alberta (1988–1991). Final Report: Department of Renewable Resources in cooperation with Alberta Environmental Protection, Fish and Wildlife Service. Edmonton, 57 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller P (1998) Hunting by humans perverse, too efficient – nature has solutions. The C.A.S.H. Courier Fall, special articles http://www.all-creatures.org/cash/cc98fa-perverse.html

  • NASA (The National Aeronautics and Space Administration) (2001) MODIS/Terra land cover type L3 global grid data Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center USGS http://LPDAAC.usgs.gov/dataproducts.asp

  • NFPP SFA (NFPP Management Office and Center of State Forestry Administration) (2006) Natural forest resource protection program manual. China Forestry Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Nowell K, Jackson P, Group ISCS (1996) Wild cats: status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN, Gland

    Google Scholar 

  • Odum EP (1969) Strategy of ecosystem development. Science 164:262

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Hara KL, Latham PA, Hessburg P et al (1996) A structural classification for inland northwest forest vegetation. West J Appl For 11:97–102

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver CD (1998) Passive versus active forest management. In: Calhoun JM (ed) Forest policy: ready for renaissance. Institute of Forest Resources, College of Forest Resources, University of Washington, Seattle, pp 237–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver CD, Larson BC (1996) Forest stand dynamics, Updated edn. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver CD, O’Hara KL (2004) Effects of restoration at the stand level. In: Stanturf JA, Marsden P (eds) Restoration of boreal and temperate forests. CRC Press, New York, pp 31–59

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver CD, Osawa A, Camp A (1998) Forest dynamics and resulting animal and plant population changes at the stand and landscape levels. J Sustain For 6:281–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quammen D (2003) Monster of God: the man-eating predator in the jungles of history and the mind. W.W. Norton, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruyle G, Ogden P (1993) What is an A.U.M.? http://cals.arizona.edu/arec/pubs/rmg/1%20rangelandmanagement/1%20aum93.pdf. Accessed 8 Apr 2007

  • Shaw JH (2009) Personal communication. November 15, 2009. Shaw JH is a professor in the School of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Oklahoma State University

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw JH (2010) Personal communication. May 10, 2010. Shaw JH is a professor in the School of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Oklahoma State University

    Google Scholar 

  • Shi D (2005) Investigation and thoughts on managing guns in national forest. For Public Secur 2:14–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Shi P, Xu J (2006) Deforestation in China. Discussion of the Agriculture Policy Research Center. http://www.ccap.org.cn/cn/research/discussc.htm. Accessed 15 Sept 2006

  • Smith JLD, McDougal CW, Sunquist ME (1987) Female land-tenure system in tigers. In: Tilson RL, Seal US (eds) Tigers of the world: the biology, biopolitics, management, and conservation of an endangered species. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, pp 97–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith JLD, Ahearn SC, McDougal C (1998) Landscape analysis of tiger distribution and habitat quality in Nepal. Conserv Biol 12:1338–1346

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song J, Li W, Zhang H et al (2005) Observation of wild boars’ ecological habits and analysis of their food in Baishilazi area. J Liaoning For Sci Techonol 2:25–26

    Google Scholar 

  • State Forestry Administration of P. R. China (1982) Technical guidelines for the forest resource inventory. Issued by the Ministry of Forestry on 25 Dec, 1982. No. 10

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens WK (1990) New eye on nature: the real constant is eternal turmoil. The New York Times

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroganov SU (1969) Carnivorous mammals of Siberia. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem

    Google Scholar 

  • Suding KN, Gross KL, Houseman GR (2004) Alternative states and positive feedbacks in restoration ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 19:46–53

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sun Y (2004) Heilongjiang forests: wild Amur tiger ate cattle again. Electronic Xinhua Daily, p 8

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunquist ME (1981) The social organization of tigers (Panthera tigris) in Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal. Smithson Contrib Zool 336:1–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tian Y, Wu J, Kou X et al (2009) Spatiotemporal pattern and major causes of the Amur tiger population dynamics. Biodivers Sci 17:211–225

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1985) Red-cockaded woodpecker recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • USGS (2005) Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA 2000). Earth Resources Observation and Science Center. http://edcsns17.cr.usgs.gov/glcc/fao/methodology.html. Accessed 15 Mar 2008

  • Wallington TJ, Hobb RJ, Moore SA (2005) Implications of current ecological thinking for biodiversity conservation: a review of the salient issues. Ecol Soc 10:15

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y (1995) Korean pine forest. Northeast Forest University Press, Harbin

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang S (2003) The system analysis of Heilongjiang modern forest management since 1949s. In: Forest management. Beijing Forestry University, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang H (2007a) Wild Amur tiger appeared in Hunchun again. Science and Technology Daily, p 010

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang J (2007b) Frequent occurrence of Amur tiger in Mulin forest, Heilongjiang. China Green Times, p A01

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang L (2007c) Modern forestal industrialization in Northeast China and its influence. In Chinese

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang S, Guo Q, Song R (2005a) Land resources optimum and forest-type structure regulation for Daxing’anling forest region. J Northeast For Univ 33:23–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang Z, Wang Z, Wang L (2005b) Wild Amur tiger comes to Dongning. Heilongjiang Daily News, p 009

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson DM (1999) The disturbing history of intermediate disturbance. Oikos 84:145–147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu Q (2007) Exploring the change of Heilongjiang forests and its cause in the modern age. Stud Explor Chin 170:220–224

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu Q, Huang Q (2007) Clarify and explain the changes of forest area and volume in Heilongjiang in modern times. For Econ 3:60–62

    Google Scholar 

  • WWF (2008) Tigers: tiger fact. WWF International http://www.panda.org/species

  • Yan K, Meng X, Yang Q (2006) Identification manual for mammals in China. China Forestry Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Yao C, Man X (2004) Historical evolvement and dynamic swing of forest resources in Heilongjiang. J Northeast For Univ 32:8–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Yi B, Ye Y (2004) The development of forest reserves in Northeast China since the end of Qing Dynasty and its environmental cost. Agricultural History of China 4:115–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Young MR (1992) Conserving insect communities in mixed woodlands. In: Cannell MGR, Malcolm DC, Robertson PA (eds) The ecology of mixed-species stands of trees. Blackwood Scientific Publications, London, pp 277–296

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu X, Sun B, Sun H (2000) Amur tigers distribution and population amount in Heilongjiang Province. Wild Anim 2:14–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang E, Miquelle DG, Wang T et al (2005) Recovery of the wild Amur tiger population in China: progress and prospect. China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study is supported by Yale School of Graduate Studies Fan Fellowship, Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale Institute for Biospheric Studies Center for Field Ecology Pilot Grant, the Jubitz Family Endowment for Research from United States, and the National Key Project for Cooperative Research on key issues concerning the environment and resources in China and Russia (Grant No. 2005CB724800), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31270567, 31210103911) from China. This study has received valuable advice and encouragement from Dr. Maung Moe Myint, Professor Timothy G. Gregoire of Yale University, Professor Herman H. Shugart of the University of Virginia, Professor C. Dana Tomlin of University of Pennsylvania and Professor Jim Shaw of Oklahoma State University. We appreciate the help of Mr. Xuejun Chen, Vice Director of China’s NFPP Office, for his advice and for providing materials. We also thank the Hunchun National Reserve in Jilin Province for helping with this Amur tiger study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Conservation Science, NatureServe, 4600 N. Fairfax Drive, 7th floor, Arlington, VA, 22203, USA

    Xuemei Han

  2. School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Global Institute of Sustainable Forestry, Yale University, 195 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA

    Chadwick Dearing Oliver

  3. College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Beijing, 100875, China

    Jianping Ge & Xiaojun Kou

  4. College of Forestry, Northeastern Forestry University, Hexing Road, Harbin, 150040, China

    Qingxi Guo

Authors
  1. Xuemei Han
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Chadwick Dearing Oliver
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jianping Ge
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Qingxi Guo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Xiaojun Kou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xuemei Han .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Ctr. Forest Disturbance Science, US Forest Service, Green St. 320, Athens, 30602, Georgia, USA

    John Stanturf

  2. , Danish Ctr Forest, Landscape Planning, University of Copenhagen, Vedelsgade 6, Vejle, 7100, Denmark

    Palle Madsen

  3. Center for Mined Land Rehabilitation, Queensland University, Brisbane, 4072, Queensland, Australia

    David Lamb

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Han, X., Oliver, C.D., Ge, J., Guo, Q., Kou, X. (2012). Managing Forest Stand Structures to Enhance Conservation of the Amur Tiger (Panthera tigris altaica). In: Stanturf, J., Madsen, P., Lamb, D. (eds) A Goal-Oriented Approach to Forest Landscape Restoration. World Forests, vol 16. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5338-9_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation