Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

The Family, the Market or the State? pp 159–178Cite as

Social Norms and Intergenerational Relationships

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: International Studies in Population ((ISIP,volume 100))

Abstract

Intergenerational relationships in ageing societies differ between countries: the shapes they take are difficult to explain, and it is tempting to refer to the vague concept of ‘culture’. This chapter contends that norms can be associated with the frequency of contacts between adult children and their elderly parents. The empirical analysis applies multilevel ordered logistic regression models to cross-country data derived from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). The three-level structure considers the adult child, his or her parent (aged 50 or more), and the country (ten European countries). The normatively accepted division of responsibility for elderly care between family and state (a variable based on Eurobarometer data) is considered at the macro-level. The results suggest a strong association between social norms and frequency of intergenerational contacts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   29.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   37.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Following the classification of welfare states, three regimes or clusters of family policy are identified (e.g. Esping-Andersen 1990; Ferrera 1996): (1) the Scandinavian social democratic countries (DK, SE), (2) the conservative countries (AU, BE, DE, FR), and (3) the familistic regimes in the Mediterranean (ES, GR, IT). The Netherlands is considered a hybrid between liberal, conservative, and social democratic, and its classification depends on the focus of study. SHARE collected data also in Ireland and Israel. However, these countries are not considered in this chapter in order to keep the focus on the three clusters mentioned above.

  2. 2.

    I have also controlled for the presence of at least one sibling living with the parents, and results (not shown here) do not change appreciably from those presented below.

  3. 3.

    The gllamm command in STATA with a minimum of eight integration points allows three-level models with an ordered logistic framework (Rabe-Hesketh and Skrondal 2005).

  4. 4.

    Both the AIC (Akaike 1971, 1974) and the BIC (Schwarz 1978) are measures of the goodness of fit of an estimated model used for model selection between parametric models with different numbers of parameters. AIC and BIC are calculated as follows: \( {\hbox{AIC}} \equiv - 2\log (L) + 2(k) \); \( {\hbox{BIC}} \equiv - 2\log (L) + k\log (N) \), where L is the maximum likelihood for the estimated model, k is the number of independently adjusted parameters within the model, and N is the number of data-points used in the fit. Given several competing models, AIC and BIC allow a ranking. Models with smaller deviance, AIC, and BIC should be preferred over other models. Whereas the deviance which is −2 times the log-likelihood can simply be reduced by adding a new predictor to the model, the AIC and the BIC penalise for adding new predictors to the model, with BIC being more conservative than the AIC (Gelman and Hill 2007: 524–525).

References

  • Akaike, H. (1971). Autoregressive model fitting for control. Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics, 3, 163–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, AC-19, 716–723.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antonucci, T. C. (1990). Social supports and social relationships. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social sciences (3rd ed., pp. 205–226). San Diego: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antonucci, T., & Akiyama, H. (1987). Social networks in adult life and a preliminary examination of the convoy model. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 519–527.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, U., & Beck-Gernsheim, E. (2002). Individualization: Institutionalized individualism and its social and political consequences. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. (1976). The economic approach to human behaviour. Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. S. (1981/1991). A treatise on the family. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. S., & Barro, R. J. (1988). A reformulation of the economic theory of fertility. Chicago: University of Chicago – Population Research Center 85–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bengtson, V. L. (2001). Beyond the nuclear family: The increasing importance of multigenerational bonds. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bengtson, V. L., & Roberts, R. E. L. (1991). Intergenerational solidarity in aging families: An example of formal theory construction. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 856–870.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Billari, F. C., & Liefbroer, A. C. (2007). Should I stay or should I go? The impact of age norms on leaving home. Demography, 44, 181–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blome, A., Keck, W., & Alber, J. (2009). Family and the welfare state in Europe. Intergenerational relations in ageing societies. Cheltenham/Northampton: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bordone, V. (2009). Contact and proximity of older people to their adult children: A comparison between Italy and Sweden. Population, Space and Place, 15, 359–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Börsch-Supan, A., & Jürges, H. (2005). Health, ageing and retirement in Europe – Methodology. Mannheim: MEA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, M., Haberkern, K., & Szydlik, M. (2009). Intergenerational help and care in Europe. European Sociological Review, 25, 585–601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broese van Groenou, M., Glaser, K., Tomassini, C., & Jacobs, T. (2006). Socio-economic status differences in older people’s use of informal and formal help: A comparison of four European countries. Ageing and Society, 26, 745–766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brückner, H., & Mayer, K. U. (2005). De-standardization of the life course: What might it mean? And if it means anything, whether it actually took place. In R. Macmillan (Ed.), The structure of the life course: Standardized? Individualized? Differentiated? (Advances in life course research, Vol. 9, pp. 27–53). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherlin, A. J., & Furstenberg, F. F. (1986). The new American grandparent. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cobb, S. (1976). Social support as a moderator of life stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38, 300–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., & Syme, L. S. (1985). Social support and health. New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connidis, I., & Davies, L. (1990). Confidants and companions in later life: The place of family and friends. Journal of Gerontology, 45, S14–S149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daatland, S. O., & Lowenstein, A. (2005). Intergenerational solidarity and the family-welfare state balance. European Journal of Ageing, 2, 174–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dosi, G., Marengo, L., Bassanini, A., & Valente, M. (1999). Norms as emergent properties of adaptive learning: The case of economic routines. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 9, 5–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durkheim, E. (1983). Les règles de la méthode sociologique. Paris: Quadrige/Presses Universitaires de France. (Original work published in 1895).

    Google Scholar 

  • Dykstra, P. A., & Fokkema, T. (2011). Relationships between parents and their adult children: A west European typology of late-life families. Ageing and Society, 31, 545–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elster, J. (1989). Social norms and economic theory. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 3, 99–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The three worlds of welfare capitalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (1995). The demographic situation in the European union, 1994 report. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Commission, DGV.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2007). Eurobarometer 67.3: Health care service, Undeclared Work, EU relations with its neighbor countries, and development aid, May-June 2007 (Computer file). Conducted by TNS OPINION & SOCIAL, Brussels, requested and coordinated by the European Commission, Directorate General Press and Communication, Opinion Polls. ZA4561 [version identification]. Cologne: GESIS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrera, M. (1996). The ‘Southern’ model of welfare in social Europe. Journal of European Social Policy, 6, 17–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fokkema, T., ter Bekke, S., & Dykstra, P. A. (2008). Solidarity between parents and their adult children in Europe (NIDI Report No. 76). Amsterdam: KNAW Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gelman, A., & Hill, J. (2007). Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerstel, N., & Gallagher, S. K. (1993). Kin keeping and distress: Gender, recipients of care, and work-family conflict. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 598–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geurts, T., Poortman, A. R., van Tilburg, T., & Dykstra, P. (2009). Contact between grandchildren and their grandparents in early adulthood. Journal of Family Issues, 30, 1698–1713.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs, J. P. (1981). Norms, deviance, and social control: Conceptual matters. New York: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, K., & Tomassini, C. (2000). Proximity of older women to their children. A comparison of Britain and Italy. The Gerontologist, 40, 729–737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, D. P., & Shapiro, I. (1996). Pathologies of rational choice theory: A critique of applications in political science. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagestad, G. O., & Dannefer, D. (2001). Concepts and theories of development: Beyond microfication in social science approaches. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social sciences (5th ed., pp. 3–21). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hank, K. (2007). Proximity and contacts between older parents and their adult children: A European comparison. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 69, 157–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heylen, L. & Mortelmans, D. (2009). Explaining parent-child proximity in Eastern and Western Europe: A micro and macro perspective. Deliverable 2.1 for the FP-7 funded project“How demographic changes shape intergenerational solidarity, well-being, and social integration: A multilinks framework”. Antwerp:Universiteit Antwerpen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horne, C. (2003). The internal enforcement of norms. European Sociological Review, 19, 335–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • House, J. S. (1981). Work, stress and social support. Reading: Addison Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalmijn, M., & De Vries, J. (2009). Change and stability in parent-child contact in five western countries. European Journal of Population, 25, 257–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalmijn, M., & Dykstra, P. (2006). Differentials in face-to-face contact between parents and their grown-up children. In P. Dykstra, M. Kalmijn, T. C. M. Knijn, A. E. Komter, A. C. Liefbroer, & C. H. Mulder (Eds.), Family solidarity in the Netherlands (pp. 63–88). Amsterdam: Dutch University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, G., & Uhlenberg, P. (1998). Effects of life course transitions on the quality of relationships between adult children and their parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 924–938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohli, M., Kuenemund, H., & Ludicke, J. (2005). Family structure, proximity and contact. In A. Börsch-Supan et al. (Eds.), Health, ageing and retirement in Europe – First results from the survey of health, ageing and retirement in Europe (pp. 164–170). Mannheim: MEA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesthaeghe, R. (1980). On the social control of human reproduction. Population and Development Review, 6, 527–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesthaeghe, R. (1995). The second demographic transition in Western countries: An interpretation. In K. Oppenheim Mason & A. M. Jensen (Eds.), Gender and family change in industrialized countries (pp. 17–62). Clarendon: Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesthaeghe, R., & Meekers, D. (1986). Value changes and the dimensions of familialism in the European Community. European Journal of Population, 2, 225–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liefbroer, A. C., & Billari, F. C. (2010). Bringing norms back in: A theoretical and empirical discussion of their importance for understanding demographic behavior. Population, Space and Place, 16, 287–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowenstein, A., & Ogg, J. (2003). Old age and autonomy: The role of service systems and intergenerational family solidarity. OASIS Final Report, Center for Research and Study of Aging, The University of Haifa, Israel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lüscher, K., & Schultheis, F. (1993). Generationsbeziehungen in “Postmodernen” Gesellschaften. Konstanz: Universitätsverlag Konstanz.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malmberg, G., & Pettersson, A. (2007). Distance to elderly parents: Analyses of Swedish register data. Demographic Research, 17, 679–704.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mandic, S. (2008). Home-leaving and its structural determinants in western and eastern Europe: An exploratory study. Housing Studies, 23, 615–636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R. K. (1968). Social theory and social structure. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michielin, F., & Mulder, C. H. (2007). Geographical distances between adult children and their parents in the Netherlands. Demographic Research, 17, 655–678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Motel-Klingebiel, A., Tesch-Römer, C., & von Kondratowitz, H. J. (2005). Welfare states do not crowd out the family: Evidence for mixed responsibility from comparative analyses. Ageing and Society, 25, 863–882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, M. (2008). Variations in kinship networks across geographic and social space. Population and Development Review, 34, 19–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, G. C. (1996). Aging and the social sciences: Research directions and unresolved issues. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and social sciences (4th ed., pp. 1–11). San Diego: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nauck, B. (2009). Patterns of exchange in kinship systems in Germany, Russia, and the People’s Republic of China. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 40, 255–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nazio, T., & Saraceno, C. (2008, April 11–12). Does cohabitation provide weaker intergenerational bonds than marriage? A comparison between Italy and the United Kingdom. Paper presented at the Equalsoc conference, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheim Mason, K. (1983). Norms relating to the desire for children. In R. A. Bulatao & R. D. Lee (Eds.), Determinants of fertility in developing countries (Vol. 1, pp. 388–428). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, T. (1937). The structure of social action. New York: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pitrou, A. (1977). Le soutien familial dans la société urbaine. Revue Française de Sociologie, 18, 45–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Popenoe, D. (1993). American family decline, 1960–1990: A review and appraisal. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 527–542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Skrondal, A. (2005). Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using stata. College Station: Stata Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reher, D. S. (1998). Family ties in Western Europe: Persistent contrasts. Population and Development Review, 24, 203–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rossi, A. S. (1993). Intergenerational relations: Gender, norms, and behavior. In V. L. Bengtson & W. A. Achenbaum (Eds.), The changing contract across generations (pp. 191–211). Hawthorne: Aldine de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossi, A. S., & Rossi, P. H. (1990). Of human bonding, parent-child relations across the life course. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saraceno, C. (2008). Families, ageing and social policy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saraceno, C., & Keck, W. (2008). The institutional framework of intergenerational family obligations in Europe: A conceptual and methodological overview. Available online at http://www.multilinks-project.eu/info/papers. Accessed 18 June 2009.

  • Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. The Annals of Statistics, 60, 461–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Settersten, R. A., Jr., & Mayer, K. U. (1997). The measurement of age, age structuring and the life course. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 233–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, M., & Bengtson, V. L. (1997). Intergenerational solidarity and the structure of adult child–parent relationships in American families. The American Journal of Sociology, 103, 429–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, M., Parrott, T. M., & Bengtson, V. L. (1995). Factors that predispose middle-aged sons and daughters to provide social support to older parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 465–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, M., Gans, D., Lowenstein, A., Giarrusso, R., & Bengtson, V. L. (2010). Old parent – Child relationships in six developed nations: Comparisons at the intersection of affection and conflict. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 72, 1006–1021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snijders, T., & Bosker, R. (1999). Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling. London: Sage Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, M. B., & Burchinal, L. (1962). Kin-family networks. Marriage and Family Living, 24, 231–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swedborg, R. (1990). Economics and sociology. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Synak, B. (1990). The Polish family: Stability, change and conflict. Journal of Aging Studies, 4, 333–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szydlik, M. (2000). Lebenslange Solidarität? Generationenbeziehungen zwischen Erwachsenen Kindern und Eltern. Opladen: Leske & Budrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szydlik, M. (2008). Intergenerational solidarity and conflict. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 39, 97–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thoits, P. A. (1989). The sociology of emotions. Annual Review of Sociology, 15, 317–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomassini, C., Kalogirou, S., Grundy, E., Fokkema, T., Martikainen, P., Broese van Groenou, M., & Karisto, A. (2004). Contacts between older parents and their children in four European countries: Current patterns and future prospects. European Journal of Ageing, 1, 54–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van de Kaa, D. J. (1987). Europe’s second demographic transition. Population Bulletin, 42, 1–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R. S. (1974). The provisions of social relationships. In Z. Rubin (Ed.), Doing unto others: Joining, molding, conforming, helping, loving (pp. 17–26). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Spectrum Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willmott, P., & Young, M. (1986). Family and kinship in East London. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (Original work published in 1957).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This chapter uses data from SHARE release 2.3.0, as of November 13th 2009. SHARE data collection in 2004–2007 was primarily funded by the European Commission through its 5th and 6th framework programmes (project numbers QLK6-CT-2001-00360; RII-CT-2006-062193; CIT5-CT-2005-028857). Additional funding by the US National Institute on Aging (grant numbers U01 AG09740-13S2; P01 AG005842; P01 AG08291; P30 AG12815; Y1-AG-4553-01; OGHA 04-064; R21 AG025169) as well as by various national sources is gratefully acknowledged (see http://www.share-project.org for a full list of funding institutions).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Wittgenstein Centre for Demography and Global Human Capital, Research Institute Human Capital and Development, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Nordbergstraße 15/A/6, 1090, Wien, Austria

    Valeria Bordone

Authors
  1. Valeria Bordone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Valeria Bordone .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Department of Statistics, University of Florence, Viale Morgagni 59, Firenze, 50134, Italy

    Gustavo De Santis

Appendix

Appendix

Table 8.A.1 Base model: odds ratios and respective standard errors of the control variables in the estimation of contact on ten countries (excluding child-parent co-residing). Level 1 (characteristics of the child) and level 2 (characteristics of the family)
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bordone, V. (2012). Social Norms and Intergenerational Relationships. In: De Santis, G. (eds) The Family, the Market or the State?. International Studies in Population, vol 100. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4339-7_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation