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Does Happiness Differ Across Cultures?

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Happiness Across Cultures

Part of the book series: Science Across Cultures: the History of Non-Western Science ((SACH,volume 6))

Abstract

There is a longstanding discussion on whether happiness is culturally relative or not. The available data suggest that all humans tend to assess how much they like their lives. The evaluation draws both on affective experience, which is linked to gratification of universal human needs and on cognitive comparison, which is framed by cultural standards of the good life. The overall appraisal seems to depend more on the former than on the latter source of information. Conditions for happiness appear to be quite similar across the world and so are the consequences of enjoying life or not. There is more cultural variation in the valuation of happiness and in beliefs about conditions for happiness. The greatest variation is found in how happy people are.

An earlier version of this paper entitled “How Universal is Happiness?” was published as Chapter 11 in Ed Diener, John F. Helliwell, and Daniel Kahneman (Eds.). (2010). International differences in well-being (pp. 328–350). New York: Oxford University Press.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject section ‘Current Happiness’ (H6.2.2.2), 1 study that observed a correlation of +0.56.

  2. 2.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject section ‘Current Happiness’ (H6.2.2.3), 1 study.

  3. 3.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject section ‘Reputation of Happiness’ (H8.2), 4 studies which observed correlations between +0.43 and +0.64.

  4. 4.

    World Database of Happiness, States of Nations (Veenhoven 2011f), Variable Happiness_DKLS_1980_2000. Average % ‘don’t know’ in 76 nations 0.75, range, 0.4 to 4.5.

  5. 5.

    This analysis involved 8 studies, the results of which are summarized in the World database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), section H6.1.2 ‘Current happiness: Overall happiness by Hedonic level of Affect’. The analysis was limited to studies among general population samples using comparable single direct questions on overall happiness (type O-HL, O-SL, O-DT, O-QOL) and Affect (type A-AOL).

  6. 6.

    This analysis involved 7 studies, the results of which are summarized in the World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), section H6.1.3 ‘Current happiness: Overall happiness by Contentment’. The analysis was limited to studies among general population samples using comparable single direct questions on overall happiness (type O-HL, O-SL, O-DT) and contentment (type C-BW).

  7. 7.

    This analysis involved 70 studies, the results of which are summarized in the World database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), section H6.1.2 ‘Current happiness: Overall happiness by Hedonic level of Affect’. The analysis was limited to studies among general population samples using comparable single direct questions on overall happiness (type O-HL, O-SL, O-DT, O-QOL) and Affect Balance (type A-AB). See also Suh et al. 1998.

  8. 8.

    This analysis involved 3 studies, the results of which are summarized in the World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), section H6.23 ‘Current happiness: Hedonic level of Affect by Contentment’. The analysis was limited to studies among general population samples. Hedonic level was measured using Affect balance Scales (type A-AB) and contentment using the Cantril ladder (type C-BW) and questions about perceived realization of wants (type C-RW).

  9. 9.

    World Database of Happiness, Happiness in Nations (Veenhoven 2011b), Rank Report Average Happiness.

  10. 10.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject section ‘Personality, Inner Locus of Control’ (P4.58). For a recent cross national study see Verne (2008).

  11. 11.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings, subject section ‘Current Income’ (1.2) For a recent cross-national comparison see Ball and Chernova (2008).

  12. 12.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject section ‘Current Occupational level’ (O1.3.1).

  13. 13.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject section ‘Subjective Social Rank’ (S9.2.2).

  14. 14.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings, subject section ‘Objective Social Status’ (S9.2.1).

  15. 15.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject ‘Marital Status’ (M2.1). See also Diener, Gohm, Oishi, and Suh (2000).

  16. 16.

    World Database of Happiness, States of Nations (Veenhoven 2011f), variable r_LS_Education_1990.

  17. 17.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject ‘Later Work Performance’(code W6.1.4).

  18. 18.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject ‘Later Leisure’ (code L3.1.4).

  19. 19.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject ‘Later Friendships’ (code F6.1.4).

  20. 20.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject ‘Later Marriage’ (code M1.4). See also Veenhoven (1989).

  21. 21.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject ‘Later Organizational Participation’ (code S7.1.4).

  22. 22.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings (Veenhoven 2011d), subject ‘Later Physical Health’ (code P6.1.4). See also Veenhoven (2008b).

  23. 23.

    World Database of Happiness, Correlational Findings, subject ‘Longevity’ (code P6.1.4.1). See also Veenhoven (2008a).

  24. 24.

    World Database of Happiness, Bibliography of Happiness (Veenhoven 2011 g), subject ‘Moral Appreciation of Happiness, by the General Public’ (code Sb02.02).

  25. 25.

    World Database of Happiness, Bibliography of Happiness (Veenhoven 2011 g), subject ‘Perceived Sources of Happiness’ (code 15a2). For a recent review see McMahon (2008).

  26. 26.

    World Database of Happiness, Bibliography of Happiness, subject ‘Perceived Sources of One’s Own Happiness’ (code Sc01).

  27. 27.

    Overall Happiness measured with a survey question on life-satisfaction. Average contentment, as measured with Cantril’s Best-Worst possible life question, is closer to neutral, which fits the prediction of comparison theory.

  28. 28.

    World Database of Happiness, Happiness in Nations (Veenhoven 2011b), Rank report average happiness. See also Diener 1996.

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  1. Erasmus University Rotterdam, POB 1738, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

    Ruut Veenhoven

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  1. Hampshire College, West Street 893, Amherst, 01002, Massachusetts, USA

    Helaine Selin

  2. , Counselling and Psychology, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, Wai Tsui Crescent 10, Hong Kong, 2570 7110, Hong Kong SAR

    Gareth Davey

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Veenhoven, R. (2012). Does Happiness Differ Across Cultures?. In: Selin, H., Davey, G. (eds) Happiness Across Cultures. Science Across Cultures: the History of Non-Western Science, vol 6. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2700-7_30

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