Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Carbon Sequestration in Golf Course Turfgrass Systems and Recommendations for the Enhancement of Climate Change Mitigation Potential

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Carbon Sequestration in Urban Ecosystems

Abstract

Urban ecosystems are an important and ever growing land use throughout the U.S. and globally. Characterized by large growing areas and intensive management, urban ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon (C) cycle. Thus, soil C budgets were constructed for several golf courses in Central Ohio. The experimental data show that golf turfgrasses sequestered C to a depth of 15 cm. Soils in the top 2.5 cm sequestered C for 14 years in fairways and 12 years in rough sites, increasing to as much as 81 years in fairways and 91.4 years in rough at a depth of 10–15 cm.

The hidden C costs (HCCs) of golf course development were also assessed and C emissions per year were determined. Major C emissions were attributed to nitrogen (N) fertilizer use (1,498 kg Ce(Carbon Equivalent)/year), fungicide application (1,377 kg Ce/year), unleaded fuel burning (3,618 kg Ce/year), diesel fuel burning (6,557 kg Ce/year), and irrigation (626 kg Ce/year). Overall emissions per year for golf course maintenance were estimated at 14.15 Mg Ce/year.

In general, golf courses had a mean C sequestration rate of 3.6 Mg C/ha/year in fairways and 2.5 Mg C/ha/year in rough soils, translating into a total C sequestration potential of 3,517 Mg C for a newly constructed course. When C emissions due to HCCs are subtracted from gross sequestration, the net sequestration is 1610.7 Mg C. Extrapolating data to the entire country, golf turfgrass systems in the U.S. have a technical potential to sequester up to 28.7 Tg C once all current courses have attained the equilibrium level.

Due to the large emission levels created by maintenance practices, however, each course shifts from being a sink to a source after 30.4 years, as emissions by this time exceed the sequestration levels, and continue to remain so for the life of the course. Thus, C sequestered is negated though management emissions 205 years after soil C sequestration had reached the equilibrium level.

Turfgrass systems have a large technical potential of C sequestration. However, the HCCs of input diminish the net potential. Thus, management practices must be reevaluated to abate the large emissions created and to achieve the benefits of global turfgrass systems in reducing the net anthropogenic emissions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

BMPs:

Best Management Practices

C:

Carbon

Ce:

Carbon Equivalent

CO2 :

Carbon Dioxide

HCCs:

Hidden Carbon Costs

K:

Potassium

N:

Nitrogen

OCC:

Oakhurst Country Club

P:

Phosphorous

SOC:

Soil Organic Carbon

SOM:

Soil Organic Matter

References

  • Alig RJ, Kline JD, Lichetnstein M (2004) Urbanization on the US landscape: looking ahead in the 21st century. Landsc Urban Plan 69:219–234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baird JH, Basta NT, Huhnke RL, Johnson GV, Payton ME, Storm DE, Wilson CA, Smolen MD, Martin DL, Cole JT (2000) Best management practices to reduce pesticide and nutrient runoff from turf. ACS Sym Ser 743:268–293

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bandaranayake W, Qian YL, Parton WJ, Ojima DS, Follett RF (2003) Estimation of soil organic carbon changes in turfgrass systems using the CENTURY model. Agron J 95:558–563

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beard JB, Green RL (1994) The role of turfgrasses in environmental protection and their benefits to humans. J Environ Qual 23:1–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown S, Iverson L, Lugo AE (1994) Land-use and biomass changes of forests in Peninsular Malaysia from 1972 to 198: a GIS approach. In: Dale VH (ed) Effects of land use change on atmosphere CO2 concentrations: South and Southeast Asia as a case study. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke IC, Yonker CM, Parton WJ, Cole CV, Flach K, Schimel DS (1989) Texture, climate, and cultivation effects on soil organic matter content in U.S. grassland soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 5:800–805

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke IC, Lauenroth WK, Coffin DP (1995) Soil organic matter recovery in semiarid grasslands: implications for the conservation reserve program. Ecol Appl 5:793–801

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buyanovsky GA, Wagner GH (1998) Carbon cycling in cultivated land and its global significance. Environ Sci R 4:131–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Cockerham ST, Gibeault VA (1985) The size, scope, and importance of the turfgrass industry. In: Gibeault VA, Cockerham ST (eds) Turfgrass water conservation. University of California, Oakland

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson EA, Ackerman IL (1993) Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously untilled soils. Biogeochemistry 20:161–193

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Detwiler RP (1986) Land use change and the global carbon cycle: the role of tropical soils. Biogeochemistry 2:67–93

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Falk JH (1976) Energetics of a suburban lawn ecosystem. Ecology 57:141–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flint EP, Richards JF (1991) Historical analysis of changes in land use and carbon stock of vegetation in South and Southeast Asia. Can J Forest Res 21:91–110

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flint EP, Richards JF (1994) Trends in carbon content of vegetation in south and Southeast Asia associated with changes in land use. In: Dale VH (ed) Effects of land use change on atmospheric CO2 concentrations: South and Southeast Asia as a case study. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Follett RF, Kimble JM, Lal R (2001a) The potential of U.S. grazing lands to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. CRC/Lewis, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Follett R, Pruessner EG, Samson-Liebig SE, Kimble JM, Waltman SW (2001b) Carbon sequestration under the conservation reserve program in the historic grassland soils of the United States of America. In: Lal R (ed) Soil carbon sequestration and the greenhouse effect. SSSA, Madison

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebhart DL, Johnson HB, Mayeux HS, Polley HW (1994) The CRP increases soil organic carbon. J Soil Water Conserv 49:488–492

    Google Scholar 

  • Golubiewski NE (2006) Urbanization increases grassland carbon pools: effects of landscaping in Colorado’s front range. Ecol Appl 16:555–571

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haith DA, Duffany MW (2007) Pesticide runoff loads from lawns and golf courses. J Environ Eng 133:435–446

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Houghton RA (1991) Releases of carbon to the atmosphere from degradation of forests in tropical Asia. Can J Forest Res 21:132–142

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Houghton RA, Hackler JL (1994) The net flux of carbon from deforestation and degradation in South and Southeast Asia. In: Dale VH (ed) Effects of land use change on atmosphere CO2 concentrations: South and Southeast Asia as a case study. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Huh KY, Deurer M, Sivakumaran S, McAuliffe K, Bolan NS (2008) Carbon sequestration in urban landscapes: the example of a turfgrass system in New Zealand. Aust J Soil Res 46:610–616

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jo HK, McPherson GE (1995) Significant C storage in lawns – greenspace planning and management strategies were explores to minimize carbon release and maximize carbon uptake. J Environ Manage 45:109–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lal R (2004) Carbon emissions from farm operations. Environ Int 30:981–990

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lal R, Bruce JP (1999) The potential of world cropland soils to sequester C and mitigate the greenhouse effect. Environ Sci Policy 2:177–185

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lal R, Kimble J, Levine E, Stewart BA (1995) Soils and global change. CRC/Lewis, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Lal R, Kimble JM, Stewart BA (2000) Global climate change and cold regions ecosystems. CRC/Lewis, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Mensah F, Schoenau JJ, Malhi SS (2003) Soil carbon changes in cultivated and excavated land converted to grasses in east-central Saskatchewan. Biogeochemistry 63:85–92

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson DW, Sommers LE (1996) Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. In: Sparks DL, Page AL, Helmke PA, Loeppert RH, Soltanpour PN, Tabatabai MA, Johnston CT, Sumner ME (eds) Methods of soil analysis, part 3. Chemical methods. Soil Science Society of America series number 5. Soil Science Society of America, Madison

    Google Scholar 

  • Nowak DJ, Noble MH, Sisinni SM, Dwyer JF (2001) People and trees: assessing the US urban forest resource. J Forest 99:37–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Petrovic MA (1990) The fate of nitrogenous fertilizers applied to turfgrass. J Environ Qual 19:1–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pira E (1997) A guide to golf course irrigation system design and drainage. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea

    Google Scholar 

  • Pouyat RV, Yesilonis ID, Nowak DJ (2009) Carbon storage by urban soils in the United States. J Environ Qual 35:1566–1575

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qian YL, Follett RF (2002) Assessing soil C sequestration in turfgrass systems using long-term soil testing data. Agron J 94:930–935

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins P, Birkenholtz T (2003) Turfgrass revolution: measuring the expansion of the American lawn. Land Use Policy 20:181–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SAS Institute Inc (1994) SAS STATE User’s Guide, Version 6, vol 1, 4th edn. SAS Institute Inc., Cary

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger WH (1986) Changes in soil carbon storage and associated properties with disturbance and recovery. In: Trabalka JR, Reichle DE (eds) The changing carbon cycle: a global analysis. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger WH (2000) Carbon sequestration in soil: some cautions amidst optimism. Agric Ecosyst Environ 82:121–127

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • UNESCO (2003) The 1st UN world water development report: water for people, water for life. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Census Bureau (2011a) Annual estimates of the resident population for the United States, regions, states, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2009. http://www.census.gov/popest/states/NST-ann-est.html. Accessed 6 Feb 2011

  • U.S. Census Bureau (2011b) Cumulative estimates of population change for metropolitan statistical areas and rankings: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2009. http://www.census.gov/popest/metro/CBSA-est2009-pop-chg.html. Accessed 6 Feb 2011

  • Whiffen HH (1991) Energy use in irrigation. Energy efficiency & environmental news. Florida Energy Extension Service, Gainesville

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Carbon Management and Sequestration Center, SENR, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA

    Adam L. Selhorst & Rattan Lal

Authors
  1. Adam L. Selhorst
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rattan Lal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Adam L. Selhorst .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. OARDC, Carbon Management &, Ohio State University, Coffey Road 2021, Columbus, 43210, Ohio, USA

    Rattan Lal

  2. The Scotts Miracle-Gro Company, Scottslawn Road 14111, Marysville, 43041, Ohio, USA

    Bruce Augustin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Selhorst, A.L., Lal, R. (2012). Carbon Sequestration in Golf Course Turfgrass Systems and Recommendations for the Enhancement of Climate Change Mitigation Potential. In: Lal, R., Augustin, B. (eds) Carbon Sequestration in Urban Ecosystems. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2366-5_13

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation