Abstract
This chapter proposes a framework for integrating two different approaches to twenty-first century skills: “working backward from goals” and “emergence of new competencies.” Working backward from goals has been the mainstay of educational assessment and objectives-based instruction. The other approach is based on the premise that breakthroughs in education to address twenty-first century needs require not only targeting recognized objectives but also enabling the discovery of new objectives—particularly capabilities and challenges that emerge from efforts to engage students in authentic knowledge creation. Accordingly, the focus of this chapter is on what are called “knowledge building environments.” These are environments in which the core work is the production of new knowledge, artifacts, and ideas of value to the community—the same as in mature knowledge-creating organizations. They bring out things students are able to do that are obscured by current learning environments and assessments. At the heart of this chapter is a set of developmental sequences leading from entry-level capabilities to the abilities that characterize members of high-performing knowledge-creating teams. These are based on findings from organization science and the learning sciences, including competencies that have already been demonstrated by students in knowledge-building environments. The same sources have been mined for principles of learning and development relevant to these progressions.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ackoff, R. L. (1974). The systems revolution. Long Range Planning, 7, 2–20.
Alexopoulou, E., & Driver, R. (1996). Small group discussion in physics: Peer interaction modes in pairs and fours. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33(10), 1099–1114.
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education (AERA, APA, NCME). (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: AERA.
Anderson, C. (2006). The long tail: Why the future of business is selling less of more. New York: Hyperion.
Andrade, H. (2000). Using rubrics to promote thinking and learning. Educational Leadership, 57(5), 13–18.
Arvanitis, S. (2005). Computerization, workplace organization, skilled labour and firm productivity: Evidence for the Swiss business sector. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, Taylor and Francis Journals, 14(4), 225–249.
Askenazy, P., Caroli, E., & Marcus, V. (2001). New organizational practices and working conditions: Evidence from France in the 1990’s. CEPREMAP Working Papers 0106. Downloaded on October 4, 2009, from http://www.cepremap.cnrs.fr/couv_orange/co0106.pdf.
ATC21S – Assessment & Teaching of 21st century skills. (2009). Transforming education: assessing and teaching 21st century skills [Assessment Call to Action]. Retrieve from http://atc21s.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Cisco-Intel-Microsoft-Assessment-Call-to-Action.pdf.
Autor, D., Levy, F., & Munane, R. (2003). The skill content of recent technological change: An empirical exploration. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(4), 1279–1334.
Banks, J. A., Au, K. A., Ball, A. F., Bell, P., Gordon, E., Gutierrez, K. D., Brice Heath, S., Lee, C. D., Lee, Y., Mahiri, J., Suad Nasir, N., Valdes, G., & Zhou, M. (2007). Learning in and out of school in diverse environments: Life-long, life-wide, and life-deep. http://www.life-slc.org/
Barron, B. J. (2003). When smart groups fail. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 12(3), 307–35.
Barth, P. (2009). What do we mean by 21st century skills? American School Board Journal. Retrieved on October 8, 2009, from http://www.asbj.com/MainMenuCategory/Archive/2009/October/What-Do-We-Mean-by-21st-Century-Skills.aspx
Bateman, H. V., Goldman, S. R., Newbrough, J. R., & Bransford, J. D. (1998). Students’ sense of community in constructivist/collaborative learning environments. Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 126–131). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bell, D. (1973). The coming of post-industrial society: A venture in social forecasting. New York: Basic Books.
Bell, P., Lewenstein, B., Shouse, A. W., & Feder, M. A. (Eds.). (2009). Learning science in informal environments: People, places, and pursuits. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Bennett, R. E., Persky, H., Weiss, A., & Jenkins, F. (2007). Problem solving in technology rich environments: A report from the NAEP technology-based assessment project, Research and Development Series (NCES 2007–466). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Bereiter, C. (1984). How to keep thinking skills from going the way of all frills. Educational Leadership, 42(1), 75–77.
Bereiter, C. (2002). Education and mind in the knowledge age. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bereiter, C. (2009). Innovation in the absence of principled knowledge: The case of the Wright Brothers. Creativity and Innovation Management, 18(3), 234–241.
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1989). Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 361–392). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1993). Surpassing ourselves: An inquiry into the nature and implications of expertise. Chicago and La Salle: Open Court.
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (2006). Education for the knowledge age: Design-centred models of teaching and instruction. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 695–713). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (2009). Teaching how science really works. Education Canada, 49(1), 14–17.
Binkley, M., Erstad, O., Herman, J., Raizen, S., Ripley, M., & Rumble, M. (2009). Developing 21st century skills and assessments. White Paper from the Assessment and Learning of 21st Century Skills Project.
Black, S. E., & Lynch, L. M. (2003). What’s driving the new economy: The benefits of workplace innovation. The Economic Journal, 114, 97–116.
Bonk, C. J. (2009). The world is open: How web technology is revolutionizing education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Borghans, L., & ter Weel, B. (2001). Computers, skills and wages. Maastricht: MERIT.
Bransford, J. D., & Schwartz, D. (1999). Rethinking transfer: A simple proposal with multiple implications. In A. Iran-Nejad & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Review of research in education (Vol. 24, pp. 61–100). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
Bransford, J. D., & Schwartz, D. (2009). It takes expertise to make expertise: Some thoughts about how and why. In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), Development of professional expertise: Toward measurement of expert performance and design of optimal learning environments (pp. 432–448). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Bransford, J., Mosborg, S., Copland, M. A., Honig, M. A., Nelson, H. G. Gawel, D., Phillips, R. S., & Vye, N. (2009). Adaptive people and adaptive systems: Issues of learning and design. In A. Hargreaves, A. Lieberman, M. Fullan, & D. Hopkins (Eds.), Second International Handbook of Educational Change. Springer International Handbooks of Education, (Vol. 23, pp. 825–856). Dordrecht: Springer.
Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating complex interventions. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2), 141–178.
Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1996). Psychological theory and design of innovative learning environments: On procedures, principles, and systems. In L. Schauble & R. Glaser (Eds.), Innovations in learning: New environments for education (pp. 289–325). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Carey, S., & Smith, C. (1993). On understanding the nature of scientific knowledge. Educational Psychologist, 28(3), 235–251.
Carey, S., Evans, R., Honda, M., Jay, E., & Unger, C. (1989). An experiment is when You Try It and See if It works”: A study of junior high school Students’ understanding of the construction of scientific knowledge. International Journal of Science Education, 11(5), 514–529.
Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology, 1, 33–81.
Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science, 5, 121–152.
Chuy, M., Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2009, August). Knowledge building and writing development. Paper presented at the Association for Teacher Education in Europe Conference (ATEE), Palma de Mallorca, Spain.
Collins, A., & Halverson, R. (2009). Rethinking education in the age of technology: The digital revolution and schooling in America. New York: Teachers College Press.
Collins, A., Joseph, D., & Bielaczyc, K. (2004). Design research: Theoretical and methodological issues. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 15–42.
Confrey, J. (1990). A review of research on student conceptions in mathematics, science programming. Review of Research in Education 16, 3–55, C.B. Cazden, ed. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
Council, L. (2007). Skills for the future. Brussels: Lisbon Council.
Crawford, M. B. (2006). Shop class as soulcraft. The New Atlantis, 13, 7–24. Retrieved on October 10, 2009, from http://www.thenewatlantis.com/docLib/20090526_TNA13Crawford2009.pdf.
Crawford, V. M., & Toyama, Y. (2002). WorldWatcher looking at the environment curriculum: Final external evaluation report. Menlo Park: SRI International.
Crespi, F., & Pianta, M. (2008). Demand and innovation in productivity growth. International Review of Applied Economics, 22(6), 655–672.
Csapó, B. (2007). Research into learning to learn through the assessment of quality and organization of learning outcomes. The Curriculum Journal, 18(2), 195–210.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). The right to learn: A blueprint for creating schools that work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1).
Darling-Hammond, L., Barron, B., Pearson, P. D., Schoenfeld, A. H., Stage, E. K., Zimmerman, T. D., Cervetti, G. N., & Tilson, J. L. (2008). Powerful learning: What we know about teaching for understanding. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
David, P. A., & Foray, D. (2003). Economic fundamentals of the knowledge society. Policy Futures in Education, 1(1), 20–49.
Dawkins, R. (1996). The blind watchmaker (Why the evidence of evolution reveals a universe without design). New York: W. W. Norton.
de Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. New York: Basic Books.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York: Plenum.
Dickerson, A., & Green, F. (2004). The growth and valuation of generic skills. Oxford Economic Papers, 56, 371–406.
Drucker, P. F. (1968). The age of discontinuity: Guidelines to our changing society. New York: Harper & Row.
Drucker, P. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship: Practice and principles. New York: Harper and Row.
Drucker, P. F. (1994, November). The age of social transformation. Atlantic Monthly, pp. 53–80.
Drucker, P. F. (2003). A functioning society: Selection from sixty-five years of writing on community, society, and polity. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040–1048.
Earl, L. M. (2003). Assessment as learning. Using classroom assessment to maximize student learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Earl, L. M., & Katz, S. (2006). Leading schools in a data-rich world: Harnessing data for school improvement. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Engle, R. A., & Conant, F. R. (2002). Guiding principles for fostering productive disciplinary engagement: Explaining an emergent argument in a community of learners classroom. Cognition and Instruction, 20(4), 399–483.
Ericsson, K. A. (Ed.). (2009). Development of professional expertise. Toward measurement of expert performance and design of optimal learning environments. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Erstad, O. (2008). Trajectories of remixing—Digital literacies, media production and schooling. In C. Lankshear & M. Knobel (Eds.), Digital literacies. Concepts, policies and practices (pp. 177–202). New York: Peter Lang.
Fadel, C. (2008, Summer). Deep dives in 21st century curriculum (pp. 3–5). Retrieved on June 10, 2010, from http://mascd.schoolwires.net/1731106417449990/lib/1731106417449990/Summer%202008/June%20Perspectives.Deep%20Dives.2008.pdf.
Fischer, K. W., & Bidell, T. R. (1997). Dynamic development of psychological structures in action and thought. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.) & W. Damon (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 467–561). New York: Wiley.
Frederiksen, J. R., & Collins, A. (1989). A system approach to educational testing. Educational Researcher, 18(9), 27–32.
Fujimura, J. (1992). Crafting science: Standardized packages, boundary objects, and translation. In A. Pickering (Ed.), Science as practice and culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gan, Y. C., Scardamalia, M., Hong, H.-Y., & Zhang, J. (2007). Making thinking visible: Growth in graphical literacy, Grades 3 and 4. In C. Chinn, G. Erkens, & S. Puntambekar (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Supported Collaborative Learning 2007 (pp. 206–208). Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark.
Gaskin, I. W. (2005). Success with struggling readers: The Benchmark School approach. New York: Guilford.
Gates, D. (2005). Boeing 787: Parts from around world will be swiftly integrated. The Seattle Times, September 11, 2005.
Gera, S., & Gu, W. (2004). The effect of organizational innovation and information technology on firm performance. International Productivity Monitor, 9, 37–51.
Gillmore, G. M. (1998, December). Importance of specific skills five and ten years after graduation. OEA Research Report 98–11. Seattle: University of Washington Office of Educational Assessment. Retrieved May 12, 2004, from http://www.washington.edu/oea/9811.htm.
Glaser, R. (1991). Expertise and assessment. In M. Wittrock & E. Baker (Eds.), Testing and cognition (pp. 17–30). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Gloor, P. A. (2006). Swarm creativity: Competitive advantage through collaborative innovation networks. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Goodwin, C., & Goodwin, M. H. (1996). Seeing as a situated activity: Formulating planes. In Y. Engeström & D. Middleton (Eds.), Cognition and communication at work (pp. 61–95). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Greeno, J. G. (1991). Number sense as situated knowing in a conceptual domain. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22, 170–218.
Hall, R., & Stevens, R. (1995). Making space: A comparison of mathematical work in school and professional design practices. In S. L. Star (Ed.), The cultures of computing (pp. 118–145). London: Basil Blackwell.
Hatano, G., & Inagaki, K. (1986). Two courses of expertise. In H. Stevenson, J. Azuma, & K. Hakuta (Eds.), Child development and education in Japan (pp. 262–272). New York: W. H. Freeman.
Hatano, G., & Osuro, Y. (2003). Commentary: Reconceptualizing school learning using insight from expertise research. Educational Researcher, 32, 26–29.
Hearn, G., & Rooney, D. (Eds.). (2008). Knowledge policy. Challenges for the 21st century. Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.
Herrenkohl, L. R., & Guerra, M. R. (1998). Participant structures, scientific discourse, and student engagement in fourth grade. Cognition and Instruction, 16, 433–475.
Hestenes, D., Wells, M., & Swackhamer, G. (1992). Force concept inventory. Physics Teacher, 30, 141–158.
Homer-Dixon, T. (2000). The ingenuity gap. New York: Knopf.
Honda, M. (1994). Linguistic inquiry in the science classroom: “It is science, but it’s not like a science problem in a book.”Cambridge: MIT Working Papers in Linguistics.
Johnson, P. (2009). The 21st century skills movement. Educational Leadership, 67(1), 11–11.
Katz, S., Earl, L. M., & Jaafar, S. B. (2009). Building and connecting learning communities: The power of networks for school improvement. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Kozma, R. B. (2003). Material and social affordances of multiple representations for science understanding. Learning Instruction, 13(2), 205–226.
Kozma, R. B., Chin, E., Russell, J., & Marx, N. (2000). The role of representations and tools in the chemistry laboratory and their implications for chemistry learning. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9(3), 105–144.
Kuhn, D., Schauble, L., & Garcia-Mila, M. (1992). Cross-domain development of scientific reasoning. Cognition and Instruction, 9, 285–327.
Laferrière, T. (2001). Collaborative teaching and education reform in a networked world. In M. Moll (Ed.), But it’s only a tool! The politics of technology and education reform (pp. 65–88). Ottawa: Canadian Teachers Federation and Canadian Centre for Policy Alternative.
Laferrière, T., & Gervais, F. (2008). Communities of practice across learning institutions. In C. Kimble, P. Hildreth, & I. Bourdon (Eds.), Communities of Practice: Creating Learning Environments for Educators, Vol. 2 (pp. 179–197). Charlotte: Information Age Publishing Inc.
Lai, M., & Law, N. (2006). Peer Scaffolding of Knowledge Building through Collaboration of Groups with Differential Learning Experiences. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 35(2), 121–142.
Lamon, M., Secules, T., Petrosino, A. J., Hackett, R., Bransford, J. D., & Goldman, S. R. (1996). Schools for thought: Overview of the project and lessons learned from one of the sites. In L. Schauble & R. Glaser (Eds.), Innovation in learning: New environments for education (pp. 243–288). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Law, N. (2006). Leveraging technology for educational reform and pedagogical innovation: Policies and practices in Hong Kong and Singapore. Research and Practice in Technology Education and Learning, 1(2), 163–170.
Law, N., & Wong, E. (2003). Developmental trajectory in knowledge building: An investigation. In B. Wasson, S. Ludvigsen & U. Hoppe (Eds.), Designing for change in networked learning environments (pp.57–66). Dordrecht:: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Law, N., Lee, Y., & Chow, A. (2002). Practice characteristics that lead to “21st century learning outcomes”. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 18(4), 415–426.
Lee, C. D. (1992). Literacy, cultural diversity, and instruction. Education and Urban Society, 24, 279–291.
Lee, E. Y. C., Chan, C. K. K., & van Aalst, J. (2006). Students assessing their own collaborative knowledge building. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 1, 277–307.
Lehrer, R., Carpenter, S., Schauble, L., & Putz, A. (2000). Designing classrooms that support inquiry. In R. Minstrell & E. Van Zee (Eds.), Inquiring into inquiry learning and teaching in science (pp. 80–99). Reston: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Leiponen, A. (2005). Organization of knowledge and innovation: The case of Finnish business services. Industry and Innovation, 12(2), 185–203.
Leonard-Barton, D. (1995). Wellsprings of knowledge: Building and sustaining the sources of innovation. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Maurin, E., & Thesmar, D. (2004). Changes in the functional structure of firms and the demand for skill. Journal of Labour Economics, 22(3), 639–644.
Messick, S. (1994). The interplay of evidence and consequences in the validation of performance assessments. Educational Researcher, 32, 13–23.
Messina, R., & Reeve, R. (2006). Knowledge building in elementary science. In K. Leithwood, P. McAdie, N. Bascia, & A. Rodrigue (Eds.), Teaching for deep understanding: What every educator should know (pp. 110–115). Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Mestre, J. P. (1994). Cognitive aspects of learning and teaching science. In S. J. Fitzsimmons, & L. C. Kerpelman (Eds.), Teacher enhancement for elementary and secondary science and mathematics: Status, issues, and problems. (pp.3–1—3–53). NSF 94–80, Arlington: National Science Foundation.
Minstrell, J. (1989). Teaching science for understanding. In L. Resnick & L. Klopfer (Eds.), Toward the thinking curriculum: Current cognitive research. 1989 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (pp. 129–149). Washington, DC: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Mislevy, R. J., & Haertel, G. D. (2006). Implications of evidence-centred design for educational testing. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 25(4), 6–20.
Mislevy, R. J., Chudowsky, N., Draney, K., Fried, R., Gaffney, T., Haertel, G., Hafter, A., Hamel, L., Kennedy, C., Long, K., Morrison, A. L., Murphy, R., Pena, P., Quellmalz, E., Rosenquist, A., Songer, N., Schank, P., Wenk, A., & Wilson, M. (2003). Design patterns for assessing science inquiry (PADI Technical Report 1). Menlo Park: SRI International, Center for Technology in Learning.
Moll, L. C. (1986a). Creating strategic learning environments for students: A community-based approach. Paper presented at the S.I.G. Language Development Invited Symposium Literacy and Schooling, Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.
Moll, L. C. (1986b). Writing as a communication: Creating strategic learning environments for students. Theory into Practice, 25, 102–108.
Moses, R. P. (1994). The struggle for citizenship and math/sciences literacy. Journal of Mathematical Behaviour, 13, 107–111.
Moss, J. (2005). Pipes, tubes, and beakers: Teaching rational number. In J. Bransford & S. Donovan (Eds.), How children learn: History, science and mathematics in the classroom (pp. 309–350). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Moss, J., & Beatty, R. (2006). Knowledge building in mathematics: Supporting collaborative learning in pattern problems. International Journal of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, 1(4), 441–465.
Murphy, M. (2002). Organizational change and firm performance. OECD Working Papers. Downloaded on October 3, 2009 from http://puck.sourceoecd.org/vl=18659355/cl=20/nw=1/rpsv/workingpapers/18151965/wp_5lgsjhvj7m41.htm.
National Research Council (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Expanded version; J. D. Bransford, A. L. Brown, & R. R. Cocking (Eds.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge creating company: How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Norman, D. A. (1993). Things that make us smart. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Nunes, C. A. A., Nunes, M. M. R., & Davis, C. (2003). Assessing the inaccessible: Metacognition and attitudes. Assessment in Education, 10(3), 375–388.
Ochs, E., Gonzales, P., & Jacoby, S. (1996). “When I come down I’m in the domain state”: Grammar and graphic representation in the interpretive activity of physicists. In E. Ochs, E. A. Schegloff, & S. Thompson (Eds.), Interaction and grammar (pp. 328–369). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Paavola, S., & Hakkarainen, K. (2005). The knowledge creation metaphor—An emergent epistemological approach to learning. Science and Education, 14, 535–557.
Panel on Educational Technology of the President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (1997, March). Report to the President on the use of technology to strengthen K-12 education in the United States. Retrieved on December 1, 2009, from http://www.ostp.gov/PCAST/k-12ed.html.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2009). Retrieved on October 1, 2009, from http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/
Pellegrino, J., Chudowsky, N., & Glaser, R. (2001). Knowing what students know: The science and design of educational assessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Pilat, D. (2004). The economic impact of ICT: A European perspective. Paper presented at a conference on IT Innovation, Tokyo.
Quellmalz, E. S., & Haertel, G. D. (2008). Assessing new literacies in science and mathematics. In D. J. Leu Jr., J. Coiro, M. Knowbel, & C. Lankshear (Eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Quellmalz, E. S., & Kozma, R. (2003). Designing assessments of learning with technology. Assessment in Education, 10(3), 389–407.
Quellmalz, E. S., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2009). Technology and testing. Science, 323, 75–79.
Raizen, S. A. (1997). Making way for technology education. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 6(1), 59–70.
Raizen, S. A., Sellwood, P., Todd, R. D., & Vickers, M. (1995). Technology education in the classroom: Understanding the designed world. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Redish, E. F. (1996). Discipline-specific science education and educational research: The case of physics. Paper prepared for the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning, for the Sciences of Science Learning: an Interdisciplinary Discussion.
Reich, R. B. (1991). The work of nations: Preparing ourselves for 21st century capitalism. New York: A.A. Knopf.
Robinson, A. G., & Stern, S. (1997). Corporate creativity. How innovation and improvement actually happen. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.
Rotherham, A. J. (2008). 21st-century skills are not a new education trend but could be a fad. Retrieve October 8, 2009, from http://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2008/12/15/21st-century-skills-are-not-a-new-education-trend-but-could-be-a-fad.html
Rotherham, A. J., & Willingham, D. (2009). 21st Century skills: The challenges ahead. Educational Leadership, 67(1), 16–21.
Saving the rainforest: REDD or dead? (2009). Retrieved on December 19, 2009, from http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/12/18/un.redd.program.rainforests/index.html
Scardamalia, M. (2002). Collective cognitive responsibility for the advancement of knowledge. In B. Smith (Ed.), Liberal education in a knowledge society (pp. 67–98). Chicago: Open Court.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2003). Knowledge building. In Encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., pp. 1370–1373). New York: Macmillan Reference.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: Theory, pedagogy, and technology. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 97–118). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C., Brett, C., Burtis, P. J., Calhoun, C., & Smith Lea, N. (1992). Educational applications of a networked communal database. Interactive Learning Environments, 2(1), 45–71.
Schauble, L., Glaser, R., Duschl, R. A., Shulze, S., & John, J. (1995). Students’ understanding of the objectives and procedures of experimentation in the science classroom. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4, 131–166.
Schwartz, D. L., & Bransford, J. D. (1998). A time for telling. Cognition and Instruction, 16(4), 475–522.
Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline. London: Century Business.
Shutt, K., Phillips, R., Van Horne, K., Vye, N., & Bransford, J. B. (2009). Developing science inquiry skills with challenge-based, student-directed learning. Seattle: Presentation to the LIFE Center: Learning in Informal and Formal Environments, University of Washington.
Shutt, K., Vye, N., & Bransford, J. D. (2011, April). The role of agency and authenticity in argumentation during science inquiry. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Orlando, FL.
Simonton, D. K. (1999). Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity. New York: Oxford University Press.
Smith, C. L., & Wenk, L. (2006). Relations among three aspects of first-year college Students’ epistemologies of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(8), 747–785.
Smith, C. L., Maclin, D., Houghton, C., & Hennessey, M. G. (2000). Sixth-grade Students’ epistemologies of science: The impact of school science experiences on epistemological development. Cognition and Instruction, 18(3), 349–422.
Spiro, R. J., Vispoel, W. L., Schmitz, J., Samarapungavan, A., & Boeger, A. (1987). Knowledge acquisition for application: Cognitive flexibility and transfer in complex content domains. In B. C. Britton & S. Glynn (Eds.), Executive control processes in reading (pp. 177–199). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. L., Jackson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1991). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Educational Technology, 31(5), 24–33.
Stahl, G. (2006). Group cognition: Computer support for building collaborative knowledge. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Stewart, I., & Golubitsky, M. (1992). Fearful symmetry: Is God a geometer? Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Stipek, D. (2002). Motivation to learn: Integrating theory and practice (4th ed.). Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon.
Stiroh, K. J. (2003). Growth and innovation in the new economy. In D. Jones (Ed.), New economy handbook (pp. 723–751). San Diego/London: Elsevier/Academic Press.
Suchman, L. A., & Trigg, R. H. (1993). Artificial intelligence as craftwork. In S. Chaiklin & J. Lave (Eds.), Understanding practice: Perspectives on activity and context (pp. 144–178). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sun, Y., Zhang, J., & Scardamalia, M. (2008). Knowledge building and vocabulary growth over two years, Grades 3 and 4. Instructional Science. doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9082-5.
Sun, Y., Zhang, J., & Scardamalia, M. (2010). Developing deep understanding and literacy while addressing a gender-based literacy gap. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology 36(1). Published online at http://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/article/view/576
Svihla, V., Vye, N. J., Brown, M., Philips, R., Gawel, D., & Bransford, J. D. (2009). Interactive learning assessments for the 21st century. Education Canada, 49(3), 44–47.
Tabak, I., & Baumgartner, E. (2004). The teacher as partner: Exploring participant structures, symmetry, and identity work in scaffolding. Cognition and Instruction, 22(4), 393–429.
Teplovs, C. (2008). The knowledge space visualizer: A tool for visualizing online discourse. In G. Kanselaar, V. Jonker, P. A. Kirschner, & F. J. Prins (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference of the Learning Sciences 2008: Cre8 a learning world. Utrecht: International Society of the Learning.
The North American Council for Online Learning & the Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2006). Virtual Schools and 21st Century Skills. Retrieved on October 8, 2009, from http://www.inacol.org/research/docs/NACOL_21CenturySkills.pdf
Toffler, A. (1990). Power shift. Knowledge, wealth, and violence at the edge of the 21st century. New York: Bantam Books.
Trevinarus, J. (1994). Virtual reality technologies and people with disabilities. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 3(3), 201–207.
Trevinarus, J. (2002). Making yourself at home—Portable personal access preferences. In K. Miesenberger, J. Klaus, & W. Zagler (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Computers Helping People with Special Needs (pp. 643–648). London: Springer.
Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st Century skills: Learning for life in our times. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Tucker, B. (2009). The Next Generation of Testing. Retrieved on December 10, 2009, from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational_leadership/nov09/vol67/num03/The_Next_Generation_of_Testing.aspx.
Tzou, C., & Bell, P. (2010). Micros and me: Leveraging students’ cultural repertoires of practice around microbiology and health in the redesign of a commercially available science kit. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Denver.
U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Department of Education, U.S. Department of Labour, National Institute of Literacy, and the Small Business Administration (1999). Report retrieved on October 8, 2009, from http://www.inpathways.net/_ACRNA/21stjobs.pdf
UNESCO. (2005). Towards knowledge societies. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.
Venezky, R. L., & Davis, C. (2002). “Quo Vademus? The Transformation of Schooling in a Networked World.” Version 8c. OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, Paris. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/48/20/2073054.pdf.
Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. F. (1989). The concept of the Earth’s shape: A study of conceptual change in childhood. Unpublished paper. Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois, Champaign.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. (E. Hanfmann & G. Vakar,Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Original work published in 1934).
Wertime, R. (1979). Students’ problems and “courage spans. In J. Lockhead & J. Clements (Eds.), Cognitive process instruction. Philadelphia: The Franklin Institute Press.
Wertsch, J. (1998). Mind as action. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wiggins, G. P., & McTighe, J. (1997). Understanding by Design. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Wiggins, G. P., & McTighe, J. (2006). Examining the teaching life. Educational Leadership, 63, 26–29.
Williams, S. M. (2009). The impact of collaborative, Scaffolded Learning in K-12 Schools: A Meta-Analysis. Report commissioned to The Metiri Group, by Cisco Systems.
Willingham, D. (2008, December 1). Education for the 21st century: Balancing content knowledge with skills. Message posted to http://www.britannica.com/blogs/2008/12/schooling-for-the-21st-century-balancing-content-knowledge-with-skills/
Wilson, B. G. (Ed.). (1996). Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.
Wilson, E. O. (1999). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. London: Vintage Books.
Wilson, M., & Sloane, K. (2000). From principles to practice: An embedded assessment system. Applied Measurement in Education, 13(2), 181–208.
Wiske, M. S. (1998). What is teaching for understanding? In M. S. Wiske (Ed.), Teaching for understanding: Linking research with practice (pp. 61–86). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Zhang, J., Scardamalia, M., Lamon, M., Messina, R., & Reeve, R. (2007). Socio-cognitive dynamics of knowledge building in the work of nine- and ten-year-olds. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(2), 117–145.
Zhang, J., Scardamalia, M., Reeve, R., & Messina, R. (2009). Designs for collective cognitive responsibility in knowledge building communities. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 18, 7–44.
Zohgi, C., Mohr, R., & Meyer, P. (2007). Workplace organization and innovation (Working Paper 405). Washington, DC: Bureau of Labour Statistics.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Scardamalia, M., Bransford, J., Kozma, B., Quellmalz, E. (2012). New Assessments and Environments for Knowledge Building. In: Griffin, P., McGaw, B., Care, E. (eds) Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2324-5_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2324-5_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-2323-8
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-2324-5
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawEducation (R0)