Rights and Duties in the Commercial Exploration and Extraction of Mineral Resources on Celestial Bodies

Lee, Ricky J.

doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2039-8_4

Ricky J. Lee²

Part of the book series: Space Regulations Library ((SPRL,volume 7))

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Abstract

This chapter provides an analysis of the legality of commercial exploration and extraction of mineral resources on celestial bodies, in particular the freedoms of exploration and use, and the principle of non-appropriation.

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Notes

1.
See Bin Cheng, United Nations Resolutions on Outer Space: “Instant” International Customary Law? (1965) 5 Indian J. Int’l. L. 23 and Daniel Goedhuis, Reflections on the Evolution of Space Law (1966) 13 Nederlands Tijdschrift 109.
2.
See, for example, Vladlen S. Vereshchetin and Gennady M. Danilenko, Custom as a Source of International Law of Outer Space (1985) 13 J. Sp. L. 22 and He Qizhi, The Outer Space Treaty in Perspective (1997) 25 J. Sp. L. 93.
3.
Cheng, supra note 1, at 36.
4.
See, for example, C. Wilfred Jenks, A New World of Law? A Study of the Creative Imagination in International Law (1969) at 146; H. G. Darwin, The Outer Space Treaty (1967) 42 Brit. Y. Int’l. L. 278 at 280; Hugh W. A. Thirlway, International Customary Law and Codification: An Examination of the Continuing Role of Custom in the Present Period of Codification of International Law (1972), at 62–68; and Vereshchetin and Danilenko, supra note 2.
5.
Stephen Gorove, Implications of International Space Law for Private Enterprise (1982) 7 Ann. Air & Sp. L. 319 at 321.
6.
Stephen Gorove, Freedom of Exploration and Use in the Outer Space Treaty (1971) 1 Denver J. Int’l. L. & Pol’y. 93.
7.
See, for example, Silvia Maureen Williams, Las Empresas Privadas en el Espacio Ultraterrestre (1983) 8 Rev. Cen. Inv. Dif. Aero. Esp. at 39 and Luis F. Castillo Argañarás, Benefits Arising From Space Activities and the Needs of Developing Countries (2000) 43 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 50 at 57.
8.
Ibid., at 104.
9.
Gorove, supra note 5, at 321.
10.
Such a distinction was made by Kerrest in the context of Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty. See Armel Kerrest, Commercial Use of Space, Including Launching (2004), in China Institute of Space Law, 2004 Space Law Conference: Paper Assemble 199 at 200.
11.
José Monserrat Filho, Why and How to Define “Global Public Interest” (2000) 43 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 22 at 24. Italics added.
12.
Bin Cheng, Studies in International Space Law (1998) at 234–235.
13.
Ibid.
14.
Ibid., at 322.
15.
Moon Agreement, Article 11.
16.
Ibid., Article 11(7)(d).
17.
Italics added.
18.
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (5th ed., 2003).
19.
See, for example, Bin Cheng, Studies in International Space Law (1997) at 234–235; James J. Trimble, The International Law of Outer Space and Its Effect on Commercial Space Activity (1983) 11 Pepp. L. Rev. 521 at 546; and Ricky J. Lee, Definitions of “Exploration” and “Scientific Investigation” with Focus on Mineralogical Prospecting and Exploration Activities (2005), paper presented at the 56th International Astronautical Congress, 17–21 October 2005, in Fukuoka, Japan.
20.
Roger K. Hoover, Law and Security in Outer Space from the Viewpoint of Private Industry (1983) 11 J. Sp. L. 115 at 123.
21.
Armel Kerrest, Commercial Use of Space, Including Launching (2004), in China Institute of Space Law, 2004 Space Law Conference: Paper Assemble 199 at 199.
22.
Ricky J. Lee, Commentary Paper on Discussion Paper Titled “Commercial Use of Space, Including Launching” by Prof. Dr. Armel Kerrest (2004), in China Institute of Space Law, 2004 Space Law Conference: Paper Assemble 220.
23.
Ibid.
24.
Amended Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organisation, opened for signature on 24 April 1998 [2001] A.T.S. 11 (entered into force on 31 July 2001), Article 3 and International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation, Agreement Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation, at <http://216.119.123.56/dyn4000/dyn/docs/ITSO/tpl1_itso.cfm?location=&id=5&link_src=HPL&lang=english>, last accessed on 13 January 2005, Article III.
25.
Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (the “Remote Sensing Principles”), Principle XII.
26.
Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organisation and Agreement Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation.
27.
See, for example, Carl Q. Christol, The American Bar Association and the 1979 Moon Treaty: The Search for a Position (1981) 9 J. Sp. L. 77 and Martin Menter, Commercial Space Activities Under the Moon Treaty (1979) 7 Syracuse J. Int’l. L. & Com. 213 at 220.
28.
Karl-Heinz Böckstiegel, Reconsideration of the Legal Framework for Commercial Space Activities (1990) 33 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 3. Böckstiegel also observed at 4 that the Outer Space Treaty refers only to exploration of outer space and not exploration in outer space, though this author is of the view that the difference between the two, in practical terms, would be subtle at best.
29.
Ibid.
30.
Italics added.
31.
See discussion on page 326.
32.
The occupation of orbital slots on the geostationary orbit would not only occupy a particular orbital space to the exclusion of other satellites but also a particular radio frequency to be used for its transmissions: Yvon Henri, Orbit/Spectrum Allocation Procedures Registration Mechanism, paper presented at the ITU Biennial Seminar of the Radiocommunication Bureau, 15–19 November 2004, in Geneva, Switzerland. However, a persuasive argument may be made to support the view that the body of laws and regulations created by the ITU to regulate the use of the geostationary orbit and corresponding radio frequencies amount to a lex specialis to which Article I of the Outer Space Treaty has limited application.
33.
Italics added.
34.
Gorove made the same observation and suggested that this is an indication that the drafters of the Outer Space Treaty had not intended to fully abolish the extension of sovereignty of States into its facilities and installations on celestial bodies. See Stephen Gorove, Sovereignty and the Law of Outer Space Re-examined (1977) 2 Ann. Air & Sp. L. 311 at 316.
35.
Virgiliu Pop, A Celestial Body Is a Celestial Body Is a Celestial Body … (2001) 44 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 100 at 103; Ezra J. Reinstein, Owning Outer Space (1999) 20 Nw. J. Int’l. L. & Bus. 59; and Rosanna Sattler, Transporting a Legal System for Property Rights: From the Earth to the Stars (2005) 6 Chi. J. Int’l. L. 23.
36.
Italics added.
37.
Leslie I. Tennen, Second Commentary on Emerging System of Property Rights in Outer Space (2003) United Nations, Proceedings of the United Nations/Republic of Korea Workshop on Space Law 342 at 343.
38.
See discussion in Tennen, supra note 37, at 344 and Patricia M. Sterns and Leslie I. Tennen, Privateering and Profiteering on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies: Debunking the Myth of Property Rights in Space (2003) 31 Adv. Space Res. 2433.
39.
See, for example, Leslie I. Tennen, Outer Space: A Preserve for All Humankind (1979) 2 Hous. J. Int’l. L. 145 at 149.
40.
The French text of Article II provides that “L’espace extra-atmosphérique, y compris la Lune et les autres corps célestes, ne peut faire l’objet d’appropriation nationale par proclamation de souveraineté, ni par voie d’utilisation ou d’occupation, ni par aucun autre moyen.” Similarly, the Spanish text provides that “El espacio ultraterrestre, incluso la Luna y otros cuerpos celestes, no podrá ser objeto de apropiación nacional por reivindicación de soberanía, uso u ocupación, ni de ninguna otra manera.”
41.
Translated by the author. The Chinese text of Article II states:
42.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for signature on 23 May 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331 (entered into force on 27 January 1980), Article 33.
43.
Eilene M. Galloway, Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1980) 5 Ann. Air & Sp. L. 481 at 498–499.
44.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Article 31(3).
45.
See, for example, Carl Q. Christol, The Common Heritage of Mankind Provision in the 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1980) 14 Int’l. Lawyer 429 at 448 and Stephen Gorove, Interpreting Article II of the Outer Space Treaty (1969) 37 Fordham L. Rev. 349 at 351.
46.
The “Area” is defined in the Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 1(1) as “the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction”.
47.
Gorove, supra note 45, at 351 and Wayne N. White, Real Property Rights in Outer Space (1997) 40 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 370 at 372.
48.
See, for example, Stephen D. Krasner, Think Again: Sovereignty (2001) 122 Foreign Policy 20.
49.
Submission by Australia, Canada, Italy and the United States of America to the First Committee of the General Assembly, 4 December 1961, U.N.Doc. A/C.1/L.301 and A/C.1/SR.1210 at 245.
50.
Ibid.
51.
(1966) U.N.Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/SR.71 and Add. 1, at 15.
52.
Ibid., at 7.
53.
(1966) U.N.Doc. A/C.1/PV.1492 at 429.
54.
Ibid., at 432.
55.
Ibid.
56.
Ibid., at 439.
57.
Ibid., at 440.
58.
(1966) U.N.Doc. A/C.1/SR.4393 at 444.
59.
See generally Nandasiri Jasentuliyana and Roy S. Lee (eds.), Manual on Space Law (1979), vol. 1.
60.
Zaïre is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
61.
(1976) 16 I.L.M. 1.
62.
Daniel Goedhuis, Influence of the Conquest of Outer Space on National Sovereignty: Some Observations (1978) 6 J. Sp. L. 36 at 38–39.
63.
U.N. Doc. A/AC.105/PV.173 at 56 (1977).
64.
Article 34 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties provides that “A treaty does not create either rights or obligations for a third State without its consent”.
65.
See discussion at 242 et seq.
66.
Brazil signed the Outer Space Treaty on 30 January 1967 and ratified it on 5 March 1969; Colombia signed it on 27 January 1967; Ecuador signed it on 27 January 1967 and ratified it on 7 March 1969; Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaïre) signed it on 27 January 1967; Kenya and Uganda acceded to the Outer Space Treaty on 19 January 1984 and 24 April 1968, respectively; and Congo never signed nor ratified the Outer Space Treaty: U.S. Department of State, Outer Space Treaty, <http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/5181.htm>, last accessed on 18 April 2004.
67.
Henneke L. van Traa-Engelman, Commercial Utilization of Outer Space (1993), at 47.
68.
Damodar Wadegaonkar, Orbit of Space Law (1984), at 38.
69.
Ibid., at 46.
70.
Ibid.
71.
Ibid., at 39.
72.
Ibid.
73.
E. R. C. van Bogaert, Aspects of Space Law (1986), at 12.
74.
Marietta Benkö, Willem de Graaff and Gijsbertha C. M. Reijnen, Space Law in the United Nations (1985), at 12.
75.
Wadegaonkan, supra note 68, at 46.
76.
Gbenga Oduntan, The Never Ending Dispute: Legal Theories on the Spatial Demarcation Boundary Plane Between Airspace and Outer Space (2003) 1 Herts. L. J. 64 at 79–80.
77.
Ibid.
78.
C. de Jager and Giljbertha C. M. Reijnen, Mesospace: The Region Between Airspace and Outer Space (1975) 18 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 107 and Peter P. C. Haanappel, Airspace, Outer Space and Mesospace (1976) 19 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 160.
79.
Gennady P. Zhukov, Delimitation of Outer Space (1980) 23 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 221 at 227.
80.
Wadegaonkar, supra note 68.
81.
Benkö, supra note 74, at 136 and Wadegaonkar, supra note 68, at 47.
82.
Ibid.
83.
Benkö, supra note 74, at 128.
84.
Ibid., at 128.
85.
Ibid.
86.
Ibid.
87.
Space Activities Act 1998 (Cth), s. 8.
88.
Ian Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (5th ed., 1998), at 5–11.
89.
Manfred Lachs, The Law of Outer Space: An Experience in Contemporary Law Making (1972), at 56.
90.
Gennady P. Zhukov and Yuri M. Kolosov, International Space Law (1984), at 154.
91.
Benkö, supra note 74, at 129.
92.
Isabella H. Ph. Diederiks-Verschoor, An Introduction to Space Law (2nd ed., 1999), at 20.
93.
Lachs, supra note 89.
94.
Sea Launch Company LLC, Sea Launch User’s Guide (2003), located at <http://www.sea-launch.com/customers_webpage/sluw/>, last accessed on 19 January 2005.
95.
Commercial Space Launch Regulations (U.S.) 14 C.F.R. 400.2.
96.
Oduntan, supra note 76.
97.
See, for example, commentary in Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Final Protocol and Partial Revision of the 1998 Radio Regulations, as incorporated in the Final Acts of the World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-2000), Done at Istanbul on 2 June 2000 [2001] A.T.N.I.A. 32, <http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/nia/2001/32.html>, last accessed on 18 April 2004.
98.
Gbenga Oduntan, Legality of the Common Heritage of Mankind Principle in Space Law: Reconciliation of the Views from the North and South, paper presented at the International Institute of Space Law Symposium, 6 May 2003, in Sydney, Australia.
99.
Lachs, supra note 89, at 43. The British delegation was of the same view, in that “no State is able to establish an exclusive title to any part of outer space”: H. G. Darwin, The Outer Space Treaty (1967) 42 Brit. Y. B. Int’l. L. 282.
100.
Ivan A. Vlasic, The Space Treaty: A Preliminary Evaluation (1967) 5 Cal. L. Rev. 512.
101.
Lachs, supra note 89, at 43.
102.
S. Bhatt, Legal Control of the Exploration and Use of the Moon and Celestial Bodies (1968) 8 Indian J. Int’l. L. 38 and E. Brooks, Control and Use of Planetary Resources (1969) 11 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 342.
103.
Lachs, supra note 89, at 43–44.
104.
Ibid., at 43.
105.
Carl Q. Christol, Article 2 of the 1967 Principles Treaty Revisited (1984) 9 Ann. Air & Sp. L. 217 at 241.
106.
Ibid., at 263.
107.
Gorove, supra note 47, at 351.
108.
See, for example, Clyde E. Rankin III, Utilization of the Geostationary Orbit – A Need for Orbital Allocation (1974) 13 Colum. J. Trans. L. 101.
109.
Christol, supra note 105, at 263.
110.
Article 1(1) of the Moon Agreement provides that: “The provisions of this Agreement relating to the Moon shall also apply to other celestial bodies within the solar system, other than the Earth, except insofar as specific legal norms enter into force with respect to any of these celestial bodies.” Article 1(2) further provides that “For the purposes of this Agreement reference to the Moon shall include orbits around and other trajectories to or around it.”
111.
Article 21 of the Moon Agreement provides that the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic.
112.
Commercial Press, A New English-Chinese Dictionary (2nd ed., 1984), at 75. The French text of Article 11(3) provides that “Ni la surface ni le sous-sol de la Lune, ni une partie quelconque de celle-ci ou les ressources naturelles qui s’y trouvent, ne peuvent devenir la propriété d’États, d’organisations internationales intergouvernementales ou non gouvernementales, d’organisations nationales ou d’entités gouvernementales, ou de personnes physiques. L’installation à la surface ou sous la surface de la Lune de personnel ou de véhicules, matériel, stations, installations ou équipements spatiaux, y compris d’ouvrages reliés à sa surface ou à son sous-sol, ne crée pas de droits de propriété sur la surface ou le sous-sol de la Lune ou sur une partie quelconque de celle-ci …”. The Spanish text states that “Ni la superficie ni la subsuperficie de la Luna, ni ninguna de sus partes o recursos naturales podrán ser propiedad de ningún Estado, organización internacional intergubernamental o no gubernamental, organización nacional o entidad no gubernamental ni de ninguna persona física. El emplazamiento de personal, vehículos espaciales, equipo, material, estaciones e instalaciones sobre o bajo la superficie de la Luna, incluidas las estructuras unidas a su superficie o la subsuperficie, no creará derechos de propiedad sobre la superficie o la subsuperficie de la Luna o parte alguna de ellas …”. The Chinese text provides that
113.
See, for example, A. G. W. Cameron, Origin of the Solar System (1988) 26 Ann. Rev. Astron. & Astrop. 441 and Hans E. Suess, Chemical Evidence Bearing on the Origin of the Solar System (1965) 3 Ann. Rev. Astron. & Astrop. 217.
114.
See, for example, Predictive Mineral Discovery Cooperative Research Centre, Utilisation and Application of the Research: Commercialisation and Links with Users (2002), located at <http://www.pmdcrc.com.au/repspubs/annrep.html>, last accessed on 20 January 2005.
115.
The effect of these provisions are not affected by the adoption of the Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1995) U.N.Doc. A/RES.48/263.
116.
Article 1 of the Wellington Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (1989) 27 I.L.M. 868.
117.
The States that have ratified the Moon Agreement are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Chile, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco, the Netherlands, Pakistan, Peru, the Philippines and Uruguay and the States that have signed but not ratified it are France, Guatemala, India and Romania: United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs, Status of International Agreements Relating to Activities in Outer Space (2008) United Nations, 1 January 2008, at <http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/ST_SPACE_11_Rev1_Add1E.pdf>, last accessed on 16 July 2006.
118.
This is, of course, subject to international regulation on the transfer of arms and advanced military technologies under the Wassenaar Agreement and the Missile Technology Control Regime: see, for example, discussion in Ricky J. Lee and Steven R. Freeland, The Impact of Arms Limitation Agreements and Export Control Regulations on International Commercial Launch Activities (2002) 45 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 321.
119.
Italics added.
120.
See generally Ian Robertson Sinclair, The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (2nd ed., 1984) and Ian Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (1990) at 603–635.
121.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) 1155 U.N.T.S. 311, Article 26.
122.
Ibid., Articles 35 and 38.
123.
See, for example, discussion in E. Brooks, National Control of Natural Planetary Bodies: Preliminary Considerations (1966) 32 J. Air L. & Com. 315.
124.
Gennady P. Zhukov, Kosmicheskoye pravo (1966) at 270–275. See also Marko G. Markoff, La Lune et le Droit International (1964) 68 Rev. Gev. Dr. Int’l. Pub. 248.
125.
Gennady P. Zhukov, The Problem of the Definition of Outer Space (1967) 10 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 271 at 273.
126.
Andrzej S. Górbiel, Remarques sur la définition de l’espace extra-atmosphérique (1978) 21 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 89.
127.
See F. G. Rusconi, An Essay on the Lawful Concept of Heavenly Bodies (1966) 9 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 55.
128.
Gyula Gál, Space Law (1969) at 186.
129.
Ibid.
130.
Ernst Fasan, Asteroids and Other Celestial Bodies – Some Legal Differences (1998) 26 J. Sp. L. 33. See also Myres S. McDougal, Harold D. Lasswell and Ivan A. Vlasic, Law and Public Order in Space (1963) at 767.
131.
See Articles 1(3) and 5(3) of the Moon Agreement.
132.
Ernst Fasan, Large Space Structures and Celestial Bodies (1984) 27 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 243.
133.
Fasan, supra note 130, at 40.
134.
Ibid., at 37.
135.
Michael Smirnoff, Report from Working Group Three on the Law of Outer Space (1964) 7 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 352.
136.
See Neil S. Hosenball, Current Issues of Space Law Before the United Nations (1974) 2 J. Sp. L. 8 and Gennady P. Zhukov, Weltraumrecht (1968) at 272.
137.
Smirnoff, supra note 135.
138.
Marian Nash Leich, Digest of United States Practice in International Law (1980).
139.
Jerzy Sztucki, Remarks During the Discussion on the Introductory Report (1966) 9 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 64 at 64.
140.
Sylvia Maureen Williams, Utilisation of Meteorites and Celestial Products (1969) 12 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 271.
141.
See, for example, American Meteor Society, Definition of Terms by the IAU Commission 22, 1961, at <http://www.amsmeteors.org/define.html>, last accessed on 27 December 2004.
142.
See, for example, discussion in Pop, supra note 35, at 105.
143.
See Outer Space Treaty, Article I and Moon Agreement, Article 11.
144.
Ibid.
145.
Ibid.
146.
Ibid.
147.
Delbert D. Smith, The Technical, Legal and Business Risks of Orbital Debris (1997) 6 N. Y. U. Envt’l. L. J. 50 at 56.
148.
Outer Space Treaty, Article IX.
149.
See, for example, M. Miklody, Some Remarks to the Legal Status of Celestial Bodies and Protection of the Outer Space Environment (1983) 25 Proc. Coll. L. Outer Sp. 13.
150.
Outer Space Treaty, Article IX.
151.
Smith, supra note 147, at 57.
152.
Constitution and Convention of the International Telecommunication Union, opened for signature on 22 December 1992, 1825 U.N.T.S. 3; 28 U.S.T. 7645 (entered into force on 1 July 1994), Article 45.
153.
See Philip McGarrigle, Hazardous Biological Activities in Outer Space (1984) 18 Akron L. Rev. 103 and George S. Robinson III, Earth Exposure to Martian Matter: Back Contamination Procedures and International Quarantine Regulations (1976) 15 Colum. J. Transnat’l. L. 17.
154.
For the principles relating to the effect of a treaty on States that have signed but not ratified it, see the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Article 18; for the principles relating to the effect of a treaty on third States, see the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Article 34.
155.
Outer Space Treaty, Articles I and IX.
156.
Ibid., Article IX.
157.
Ibid.
158.
Ibid.
159.
Moon Agreement, Article 7(1).
160.
See Tennen, supra note 39; Prevost, supra note 39; and Michael E. Davis and Ricky J. Lee, Twenty Years After: The Moon Agreement and Its Legal Controversies [1999] Aust. Int’l. L. J. 9.
161.
See also Article 11(2) of the Moon Agreement.
162.
See also Article 15 of the Moon Agreement.
163.
See, for example, Stanley G. Love and Thomas J. Ahrens, Catastrophic Impacts on Gravity Dominated Asteroids (1996) 124 Icarus 141; Andrea Carusi, Giovanni B. Valsecchi, Germano D’Abramo and Andrea Boattini, Deflecting NEOs in Route of Collision with the Earth (2002) 159 Icarus 417; and Thomas J. Ahrens and Alan W. Harris, Deflection and Fragmentation of Near-Earth Asteroids, in Tom Gehrels (ed.), Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids (1994), at 897–927.
164.
See, for example, Carusi, Valsecchi, D’Abramo and Boattini, supra note 163 and Ahrens and Harris, supra note 163.

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Lee, R.J. (2012). Rights and Duties in the Commercial Exploration and Extraction of Mineral Resources on Celestial Bodies. In: Law and Regulation of Commercial Mining of Minerals in Outer Space. Space Regulations Library, vol 7. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2039-8_4

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