Abstract
Benefit-sharing between the users and the providers of biological resources and the knowledge associated with them has been a topic of intense, increasing concern in bioprospecting in recent years. This is due to the large amount of genetic resources that have commercial viability in a number of formal sectors, including pharmaceuticals in both industrialised and development countries.
Bioprospecting activities have been characterised by a dichotomic vision of the local communities, seen either as victims of “biopiracy” or as potential beneficiaries of benefit-sharing agreements which often have proved to be ineffective in promoting development and equity at local level.
The chapter questions whether novel benefit-sharing arrangements might give rise to a new form of bioprospecting activity. It also raises the question of whether and how an alternative representation of bioprospecting “from below” can be an instrument to enhance the local livelihoods of communities and promote their empowerment and capacity building.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
The Global Biodiversity Strategy, for example, includes as one of its ten principles for conserving biodiversity the principle that “Cultural diversity is closely linked to biodiversity. Humanity’s collective knowledge of biodiversity and its use and management rests in cultural diversity; conversely, conserving biodiversity often helps strengthen cultural integrity and values”.
- 2.
Biomedical literature refers to the use of traditional medicines as phytotherapy. Traditional medicine and traditional healers form part of a broader field of study, classified by medical anthropologists, as ethnomedicine. According to the definition of the World Health Organisation (WHO), traditional medicine is “the sum of all the knowledge and practices, whether explicable or not, used in the diagnosis, prevention and elimination of physical, mental or social imbalance and relying exclusively on practical experience and observations handed down from generation to generation, whether in oral or in written form.”
- 3.
In India, for instance, the codified systems of medicine utilize about 2,000 plant species for medicinal purposes, while the tribal communities, who live in and around the forests, utilize over 8,000 species of plants, most of which are otherwise not known to the outside world (Pushpangadan 2002, p. 5).
- 4.
A review of anthropological literature reveals that certain authors suggest that concepts close or equivalent to individual forms of IPRs are quite common in indigenous and traditional proprietary systems (see, e.g. Dutfield 2000). According to one view, the right of an indigenous inventor or custodian of TK should not be sacrificed on the altar of collective ownership, since this would infringe on fundamental human rights.
- 5.
The extent to which such prima facie individual knowledge can be truly classified as individual knowledge depends on other factors, as discussed below.
- 6.
Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002–2005, World Health Organization, WHO/EDM/TRM/2002.1, Geneva, p.7.
- 7.
In India, it has been noted, however, that less than 30 of the medicinal plants utilized by the industry are under commercial cultivation. 80,000 metric tons a year of certain plant varieties are being collected from the wild. At this rate of collection, the TRM industry may crash because of lack of suppliers in the short term.
- 8.
Drugs derived from plants are of immense importance in terms of numbers of patients treated. It is reported that ca. 25% of all prescriptions dispensed from community pharmacies in the USA between 1959 and 1973 contained one or more ingredients derived from higher plants. A study of the top 150 proprietary drugs used in the USA in 1993, found that 57% of all prescriptions contained at least one major active compound currently or once derived from (or patterned after) compounds derived from biological diversity.
- 9.
- 10.
Despite claims by Farnsworth and Soejardo (120) that approximately 74% of all modern drugs discovered are the result of leads provided by indigenous medicinal knowledge, other commentators, dispute the value of ethnobotanical and ethnomedical information to pharmaceutical research. Indeed, Borris and Turner maintain that the value of indigenous knowledge to natural product research in the pharmaceutical industry is minimal. According to these authors, it is a complement to “the basic pharmaco/cell biology/biochemistry based discovery program,” pursued only for diversity in pharmaceutical research. Both Borris and Turner assert that in the current research climate where all samples are tested in all available screens, indigenous knowledge is irrelevant. Davidson et al. agree with the argument, claiming that such knowledge is only beneficial if researching a narrow range of target diseases.
- 11.
See, e.g. Dutfield 2000, p. 10.
- 12.
An often cited case is the use of the Madagascan rosy periwinkle plant by Eli Lilly for the treatment of Hodgkin’s disease (a type of lymph cancer) and childhood leukemia.
- 13.
According to, some imagine “that traditional medicinal knowledge of indigenous peoples is an object of great interest to drug companies and hence deserving of a high value (given its scarcity). Analysis of the case at hand and continuing trends away from research involving traditional plant remedies in the pharmaceutical industry cast great doubt on the dollar value of traditional knowledge to pharmaceutical companies.”
- 14.
See, e.g., Barsh 2001.
- 15.
Glowka defines IPRs as private legal rights that apply to intangible human contribution that goes into producing a particular technology. The holder has a legal monopoly over the commercial exploitation of the intellectual property over a specified period of time, and therefore, the technology that embodies it. See Lyle Glowka, A Guide to Designing Legal Frameworks to Determine Access to Genetic Resources (Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge and Bonn).
- 16.
Some of the main effects of IPRs on biodiversity have been identified in decreased crop diversity, decreased spatial genetic diversity, and increased use of external inputs. (UNCTAP-ICTSD Intellectual Property Rights: Implication for development, Policy Discussion Paper, August 2003).
- 17.
Conserving Indigenous Knowledge: Integrating two systems of innovation’. An independent study by the Rural Advancement Foundation International. Commissioned by the United Nations Development Programme.
- 18.
For example, the Kani Tribe in India has trouble accessing the forest plant Trichopus zeylanicus from forest lands, which is used in the preparation of the herbal medicine “Jeevani.” The tribal people cannot legally access the plant and sell it to the institute that developed the drug, since collection for commercial purposes is not allowed. The Forest Department justifies these restrictions on the grounds of conserving anendemic species, which it argues may run the risk of over-exploitation as a result of commercial demand.
- 19.
One example is given by Oxford Natural Products (ONP) from the United Kingdom, who have signed an agreement with PT Indofarma, one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in Indonesia, which will bring ‘Jamu’ medicines onto the international market. ‘Jamu’ are the traditional local botanical medicines widely prescribed for those who live in Indonesia, the largest country in South East Asia. This thriving business of traditional medicine is one of the few that does well even in Indonesia’s recession-ridden economy. ONP has also signed an agreement with one of the leading natural medicine development institutes in Vietnam. The two-part agreement embraces both development and future commercial rights giving the company exclusive access to an important portfolio of Vietnam’s plant medicines. ONP is also involved in Bhutan, in which the company used the knowledge of the Dungtshos (Bhutanese traditional medicine doctors) and their assistants, the Menpas, to identify and document several medicinal plants prescribed as local remedies.
- 20.
In the Andaman Islands, off India’s eastern coast, the Onge tribe supposedly had a cure for malaria.66 There was huge controversy when it was discovered that senior officials from a government-run research centre had planned to file a patent application in their own name for the malaria cure.
- 21.
The Philippine yew tree (Taxus matrana), reported to have great potential in treating cancer, was uprooted from a national park in Mount Pulag, Benguet. Subsequently, researchers from the University of Massachusetts patented it.
- 22.
Indian Council of Medical Research, 2000, Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research on Human Subjects, New Delhi, www.icmr.nic.in/ethical.pdf.
- 23.
This typology was first used by the National Conference of Catholic Bishops (National Conference of Catholic Bishops, Economic Justice for All 1986). Commutative justice, as the first category of justice, calls for fundamental fairness in all agreements and exchanges between individuals or social groups. The second category of social justice is distributive justice. In its broad sense, distributive justice is concerned with the fair allocation of the benefits of a particular society (for instance, income, wealth, power, and status) to its members. The final category of justice is also known as punishable justice. It refers to the fair and just punishment of the guilty. With regard to access to and use of information, this form of justice acts as an important guideline for the protection of indigenous knowledge. In the case of the intellectual property laws, punishment for the theft of that property is supported by this application of social justice. However, other ‘takings’ short of actual theft could also be subject to retribution.
- 24.
According to Dutfield (2000), solutions to the protection of traditional knowledge in IPR law may be sought in terms of ‘positive protection’ and ‘defensive protection.’ Positive protection refers to the acquisition by the TK holders themselves of an IPR, such as a patent or an alternative right provided in a sui generis system. Defensive protection refers to provisions adopted in the law or by the regulatory authorities to prevent IPR claims to knowledge, a cultural expression, or a product being granted to unauthorised persons or organisations. It is important to mention here that positive protection measures may also serve to provide defensive protection and vice versa. The distinction between the two, then, is not always clear-cut. To many countries, non-governmental organisations, and others, defensive protection is necessary because the intellectual property system, and especially patents, is considered deficient in certain ways and allows companies to unfairly exploit TK. It may also be true that defensive protection may be more achievable than positive protection. This is because some of the most commonly-discussed defensive protection measures are basically enhancements to or modifications of existing IPRs.
- 25.
Farley believes copyright, and to a lesser extent, trademark and the related unfair competition laws (deceptive advertising), are best, while Greaves and Stephenson both consider a contract or license scheme to provide the best option. McGowan and Udeinya forward a more complex system of contract-based royalty rights for commercially viable indigenous knowledge. Instead of an expansion of patent rights, Hanellin forwards a sui generis approach (a specific statute) to offer de novo protection for plant-derived drugs (Hanellin 1991). King argues for a more general concept of compensation. Another option would be to maintain the traditional intellectual property systems, but rely on public sector intervention when exploitation of it occurs. Ruppert applies this to physical property, religious, sacred, or historical sites, but not to intangible property.
- 26.
See generally Cleveland, D.A., & Murray, S.C. (1997). The world’s crop genetic resources and the rights of indigenous farmers. Current Anthropology, 38(4): 477–496 (discussing aspects of the debate over the protection of indigenous farmers’ rights); Griffiths, op cit. (discussing the concept of exclusive rights as it is inherent in indigenous communities regarding magical knowledge). Shamans and other TK holder specialists may wish to restrict access to their knowledge for reasons other than because they consider it to be their property. For example, sacred knowledge, which may include knowledge of the therapeutic properties of plants, is often considered dangerous if it gets into the hands of the uninitiated. In other words, they may be concerned for the welfare of those who acquire the knowledge and try to use it.
- 27.
For an alternative classification of modalities of knowledge possession based on the concept of “negative” and “positive” community.
References
Agrawal, A. (1995). Dismantling the divide between indigenous and scientific knowledge. Development and Change, 2(6), 416–439.
Airhihenbuwa, C. O., & Harrison, I. E. (1993). Traditional medicine in Africa: Past, present, and future. In P. Conrad & E. B. Gallagher (Eds.), Health and health care in developing countries (pp. 122–134). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Akerele, O., Heywood, V., & Synge, H. (1991). The conservation of medicinal plants. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Amin, S. (1998). Spectres of capitalism: a critique of current intellectual fashions. New York: Monthly Review Press.
André, P. (2002). The biopolitics of the genetically modified organisms in Canada. Journal of Canadian Studies, 3(7), 166–182.
Anyinam, C. (1995). Ecology and ethnomedicine: Exploring links between current environmental crisis and indigenous medical practices. Social Science & Medicine, 40(3), 321–329.
Artuso, A. (1997). Capturing the chemical value of biodiversity: economic perspectives and policy prescriptions. In F. Grifo & J. Rosenthal (Eds.), Biodiversity and Human Health (pp. 184–204). Washington D.C.: Island Press.
Bachrach, P., & Baratz, M. (1970). Power and poverty: theory and practice (pp. 42–43). New York: Oxford University Press.
Balasubramanian, K. (1997). Herbal remedies: consumer protection concerns. Penang: Consumers International.
Barsh, R. (2001). Who steals indigenous knowledge? Proceedings of the 95th annual meeting of the American Society of International Law, pp. 153–161.
Benz, F., Cevallos, E., & Santana, M. (2000). Losing knowledge about plant use in the Sierra de Manantlan Biosphere Reserve, Mexico. Economic Botany, 5(4), 183–91.
Berkes, F. (1999). Sacred ecology: traditional ecological knowledge and resource management. Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis.
Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management. Ecological Applications, 1(2), 1251–1262.
Bhatti, S. (2000). Intellectual property rights and traditional medicines. Prepared for WHO-ASEAN meeting on the TRIPS agreement and its impact on drug supply, Jakarta.
Blakeney, M. (2000). The protection of traditional knowledge under intellectual property law. European Intellectual Property Review, 2(2), 251–252.
Bonabeau, E., & Theraulaz, G. (1994). Intelligence Collective. Paris: Hermes.
Britz, J., & Lipinski, T. (2001). Indigenous knowledge: A moral reflection on current legal concepts of intellectual property. Libri, 51, 234–246.
Caniago, I., & Siebert, F. (1998). Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Economic Botany, 5(2), 229–50.
Chambers, R., Pacey, A., & Thrupp, L. A. (1989). Farmer first: farmer innovation and agricultural research. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
Chandra, S. (2002). Role of traditional systems of medicine in national health care system. In R. R. Chaudhury & U. M. Rafei (Eds.), Traditional Medicine in Asia. New Delhi: WHO, Regional Office for South-East Asia.
Chen, J. (2002). Intellectual property and biological diversity: a misunderstood relation. (Unpublished).
Coase, R. H. (1960). The problem of social cost. Journal of Law and Economics, 2(3), 234–245.
Colchester, M. (1994). Salvaging nature: indigenous people, protected areas and biodiversity conservation. UNRISD, Document de discussion n°55, Genève.
Conklin, B. A. (1997). Body paint, feathers and VCRs: aesthetics and authenticity in Amazonian activism. American Ethnologist, 24(4), 712–724.
Correa, C. (2000). In situ conservation and intellectual property rights. In S. Brush (Ed.), Genes in the field, on-farm conservation of crop diversity. Boca Raton: IPGRI/IDRC/Lewis Publishers.
Cox, P. A. (2000). Will tribal knowledge survive the millennium? Science, 2(7), 44–45.
Cunningham, A. B. (1993). African medicinal plants: setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. People and Plants Working Paper n˚1, UNESCO, Paris.
Demsetz, H. (1967). Towards a theory of property rights. The American Economic Review, 5(7), 347–348.
Biotechnology and Development Monitor (1999) Bioinformatics and the developing world. Biotechnology and Development Monitor n°40, dec, p. 10.
Dutfield, G. (2000). Intellectual Property Rights, Trade and Biodiversity. London: IUCN.
ECOSOC (United Nations Economic and Social Council) (1986). Study of the problem of discrimination against indigenous populations. ECOSOC, Geneva. E/CN.4/sub.2/1986/7. Addendum 4, paragraph 625.
Elisabetsky, E. (1991). Folklore, tradition, or know-how? Cultural Survival Quarterly, Summer, 9–13
Elisabetsky, E., & Castilhos, Z. (1990). Plants used as analgesics by Amazonian cabaclos as a basis for selecting plants for investigation. International Journal Crude Drug Research, 2(3), 49–60.
Ellen, R., & Harris, H. (1996). Concepts of indigenous environmental knowledge in scientific and development studies literature : a critical assessment. Draft paper East-West Environmental Linkages Network Workshop 3, Canterbury.
Farnsworth, N. R. (1988). Screening plants for new medicines. In E. O. Wilson & F. M. Peters (Eds.), Biodiversity (pp. 83–97). Washington: Natl. Acad.
Farnsworth, N. R., & Soejarto, D. (1985). Potential consequence of plant extinction in the United States on the current and future availability of prescription drugs. Economic Botany, 3(9), 123–136.
Flavier, J. M., et al. (1995). The regional program for the promotion of indigenous knowledge in Asia. In D. M. Warren, L. J. Slikkerveer, & D. Brokensha (Eds.), The cultural dimension of development: indigenous knowledge systems (pp. 479–487). London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
Ford, J., & Martinez, D. (2000). Traditional ecological knowledge, ecosystem science and environmental management. Ecological Applications, 10(5), 1249–1250.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power and knowledge. New York: Pantheon Books.
Gadgil, M., Berkes, F., & Folke, C. (1993). Indigenous knowledge for biodiversity conservation. Ambio, 2(2), 266–270.
Grauds, C. (1997). Jungle medicine. Pharmacy Times, 6(3), 44–48.
Grenier, L. (1998). Working with indigenous knowledge – a guide for researchers. Ottawa: IDRC.
Griggs, B. (1981). Green pharmacy: a history of herbal medicine. London: Robert Hale.
Gupta, A. K. (1999). Making Indian agriculture more knowledge intensive and competitive: the case of intellectual property rights. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 5(4), 346–52.
Hamilton, A. C. (2004). Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodiversity and Conservation, 1(3), 1477–1517.
Harmon, D. (2002). In light of our differences: how diversity in nature and culture makes us human. Washington D.C: Smithsonian Institution Press. p216.
IDS. (1979). Rural development: whose knowledge counts? IDS Bulletin 10. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex. p64.
Johannes, R. (1989). Traditional ecological knowledge: a collection of essays. Gland: IUCN.
Johnson, M. (1992). Lore: capturing traditional environmental knowledge. Ottawa: Dene Cultural Institute/IDRC.
Jungerius, P. D. (1998). Indigenous knowledge of landscape-ecological zones among traditional herbalists: a case study in Keiyo District, Kenya. GeoJournal, 4(4), 51–60.
King, S., Meza, E., Ayala, F., Forero, L., Penna, M., et al. (1997). Croton lechleri and sustainable harvest and management of plants in pharmaceuticals, phytomedicines and cosmetic industries. In D.S., Wosniak, Yuen, S., Garrett, M., Shuman, T.M. (Eds.) International symposium on herbal medicine. San Diego, Inst. Hum. Resourc. Dev., Coll. Health & Hum. Serv., San Diego State Univ, pp. 305–333.
Koning, M. (1998). Biodiversity prospecting and the equitable remuneration of ethnobiological knowledge: reconciling industry and indigenous interests. Intellectual property Journal, n˚ 12.
Koon, O. C. (1999). Intellectual property protection of traditional medicine and treatments in Malaysia. In M. Blakeney (Ed.), Perspectives on intellectual property, intellectual property aspects of ethnobiology (Vol. 6). London: Sweet & Maxwell.
Laird, S. (2002). Biodiversity and traditional knowledge. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
Laird, S. A., & Kate, K. T. (1999). Natural products and the pharmaceutical industry. In K. T. Kate & S. A. Laird (Eds.), The commercial use of biodiversity: access to genetic resources and benefit sharing (pp. 34–77). London: Earthscan.
Leaman, D., & Schippmann, U. (1998). Medicinal plants: an unhealthy outlook. World Conservation, 2(9), 16–17.
Lebbie, A., & Guries, R. (1995). Ethnobotanical value and conservation of sacred groves of the Kpaa Mende in Sierra Leone. Economic Botany, 4(9), 297–308.
Leonard, K. L. (2003). African traditional healers and outcome-contingent contracts in health care. Journal of Development Economics, 71(1), 1–22.
Lettington, R. (2000). The protection and promotion of traditional and marginalized medicinal knowledge: romantic dream or twenty-first century necessity? Regional conference on medicinal plants, traditional medicines and local communities in Africa: challenges and opportunities of the new millenium, Nairobi.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1966). The savage mind. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p290.
Lukes, S. (1974). Power: a radical view. London: Macmillan Press. p23.
Madaley, J. (2001). Crops and robbers. ActionAid, Oct.
Mander, M. (1998). Marketing of indigenous medicinal plants in South Africa: a case study in Kwazulu-Natal. Rome: FAO.
Marshall, N. T. (1998). Searching for a cure: conservation of medicinal wildlife resources in East and Southern Africa. Cambridge: TRAFFIC-International.
McChesney, J. (1996). Biological diversity, chemical diversity and the search for new pharmaceuticals. In M. J. Balick & T. Elisabetsky (Eds.), Laird medicinal resources of the tropical forest: biodiversity and its importance to human health (pp. 11–18). New York: Columbia University Press.
Meetali, J. (1999). Global trade and the new millenium: defining the scope of intellectual property protection of plant genetic resources and traditional knowledge in India. 22 Hast. Int.L & Comp. L. Rev.
Milliken, W. (1997). Biodiversity conservation and the application of Amazonian medicinal plants in the control of malaria. In G. Bodeker, K. S. S. Bhat, J. Burley, & P. Vantomme (Eds.), Medicinal plants for forest conservation and health care (pp. 130–134). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
Muchae, J. (2000). Indigenous knowledge and industry property rights: Kenyan experience. Bangkok: Inter-Regional Workshop on intellectual Property Rights in the Context of Traditional Medicine.
Nelson-Harrison, S., King, S., Limbach, C., & Jackson, C. (2002). Ethnobotanical research into the 21st century. In W. Iwu (Ed.), Ethnomedicine and drug discovery. Ireland: Elsevier.
Nguyen, V. K., & Peschard, K. (2003). Anthropology, inequality, and disease: a review. Annual Review of Anthropology, 3(2), 447–74.
Nijar, G. S. (1996). TRIPs and biodiversity, The threat and responses: a Third World view. Penang: Third World Network.
Noikorn, U. (1998). Government urged to help reclaim marine fungi strains on loan to British university, The Bangkok Post, 22 Aug 1998. cited by Traditional knowledge of biodiversity in Asia-Pacific: Problems of Piracy and Protection Grain and Kalpavriksh, Nov 2002.
Olsen, C. S. (2005). Trade and conservation of Himalayan medicinal plants: Nardostachys Grandiflora DC. and Neopicrorhiza Scrophulariiflora (Pennell) Hong. Biological Conservation, 1(5), 505–514.
Orlove, B., & Brush, S. (1996). Anthropology and the conservation of biodiversity. Annual Review of Anthropology, 2(5), 329–352.
Pandey, D. N. (2002). Cultural resources for conservation science. Conservation Biology, 16, 912–914.
Pandey, A., & Bisaria, A. (1998). Rational utilization of important medicinal plants: a tool for conservation. The Indian Forester, 1(4), 197–202.
Pei, S. (2001). Ethnobotanical approaches of traditional medicine studies: some experiences from Asia. Pharmaceutical Botany, 3(9), 74–79.
Phillips, O., & Gentry, A. (1993). The useful plants of Tambopata, Peru: II. Additional hypothesis testing in quantitative ethnobotany. Economic Botany, 4(7), 33–43.
Pimbert, M.P., & Pretty, J.N. (1995). Parks, people and professionals: putting participation into protected area management. UNRISD Discussion Paper n˚ 57, UNRISD, Genève.
Posey, D. (1997). Indigenous people and sustainability: cases and actions. Gland: UICN.
Posey, D. A. (1999). Cultural and spiritual values of biodiversity. A complementary contribution to the global biodiversity assessment. London/Nairobi: Intermediate Technology Publications/UNEP.
Posey, D., & Dutfield, G. (1996). Beyond intellectual property: towards traditional resource rights for indigenous peoples and local communities. Ottawa: IDRC.
Pushpangadan, P. (2002). Traditional knowledge and folklore – a benefit sharing model experimental in India. Conference organized by the Commission on Intellectual Property Rights at London, 21–22 Feb 2002.
Redford, H., & Stearman, A. (1993). Forest dwelling native Amazonians and the conservation of biodiversity: interests in common or in collision? Conservation Biology, 7(2), 248–55.
Reid, W. V., Laird, S. A., Meyer, C. A., Gamez, R., & Sittenfeld, A. (1993). Biodiversity prospecting: using genetic resources for sustainable development. Washington: World Resource Institute.
Richards, P. (1994). Local knowledge formation and validation: the case of rice in Sierra Leone. In I. Scoones & J. Thompson (Eds.), Beyond farmer first (pp. 165–170). London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
Rossler, M. (1993). Conserving outstanding cultural landscapes. The World Heritage Newsletter, 2, 14–15.
Schultes, R., & Raffauf, R. (1990). The healing forest: medicinal and toxic plants of the northwest Amazonia. Portland: Dioscorides.
Semali, L., & Kincheloe, J. (1999). Introduction: what is indigenous knowledge and why should we study it? What is indigenous knowledge? Voices from the academy. Falmer Press: New York. p20.
Shankar, D., Hafeel, A., & Suma, T. (1999). Cultural richness of green pharmacy. Compas Newsletter, n˚ 2.
Sharma, S.K. (2000). National measures and experience for protection of traditional Indian medical knowledge of ayurveda – in the regime of intellectual property rights (IPR). Interregional Workshop on intellectual Property Rights in the Context of Traditional Medicine, Bangkok.
Sheldon, J., Balick, M., & Laird, S. (1997). Medicinal plants: can utilization and conservation coexist? Advances in Economic Botany, 1(2), 91–104.
Shiva, V., Jafri, A., & Bedi, G. (1997). The enclosure and recovery of the commons. New Delhi: Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology.
Sillitoe, P. (1998). The development of indigenous knowledge: a new applied anthropology. Current Anthropology, 3(9), 223–252.
Sinclair, F. L., & Walker, D. H. (1998). Acquiring qualitative knowledge about complex agroecosystems, Part 1: Representation as natural language. Agricultural Systems, 56(3), 341–363.
Slikkerveer, L. J. (2000). Ethnobiology and ethnoecology in the context of national laws and international agreements affecting indigenous and local knowledge, traditional resources and intellectual property rights. In R. Ellen, P. Parkes, & A. Bicker (Eds.), Indigenous environmental knowledge and its transformations. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic.
Smith, E. A., & Wishnie, M. (2000). Conservation and subsistence in small-scale societies. Annual Reviews Anthropology, 2(9), 493–524.
Srivastava, R. (2000). Studying the information needs of medicinal plant stakeholders in Europe. TRAFFIC Dispatches.
Steinberg, M. (2002). The second conquest: religious conversion and the erosion of the cultural ecological core among the Mopan Maya. Journal of Cultural Geography, 2(1), 91–105.
Stewart, K. M. (2003). The African cherry (Prunus africana): can lessons be learned from an over-exploited medicinal tree? Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 8(9), 3–13.
Subrat, N. (2002). Ayurvedic and herbal products industry: an overview. Paper at a workshop on wise practices and experiential learning in the conservation and management of Himalayan medicinal plants, Kathmandu, Nepal, 15–20 Dec 2002.
Timmermans, K. (2003). Intellectual property rights and traditional medicines: policy dilemmas at the interface. Social Science & Medicine, 57(4), 745–762.
Toledo, V. M. (1995). New paradigms for a new ethnobotany: reflections on the case of Mexico. In R. E. Schultes & S. Von Reis (Eds.), Ethnobotany: evolution of a discipline (pp. 75–88). London: Chapman and Hall.
Ugent, D. (2000). Medicine, myths and magic: the folk healers of a Mexican market. Economic Botany, 5(4), 427–38.
Uniyal, S. K., Awasthi, A., & Rawat, G. S. (2002). Current status and distribution of commercially exploited medicinal and aromatic plants in upper Gori Valley, Kumaon Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Current Science, 8(2), 1246–1252.
Voeks, R. A. (1996). Tropical forest healers and habitat preference. Economic Botany, 5(4), 381–400.
Voeks, R. A., & Sercombe, P. (2000). The scope of hunter- gatherer ethnomedicine. Social Science & Medicine, 51(5), 679–690.
Warren, D.M. (1991). Using indigenous knowledge in agricultural development. World Bank, World Bank Discussion Papers n˚ 127, Washington DC.
Warren, D. M., Slikkerveer, L., & Brokensha, D. (1995). The cultural dimension of development: indigenous knowledge systems. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
WHO. (2005). Stragegy on Traditional Medicine 2002–2005.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Torri, M.C., Herrmann, T.M. (2011). Traditional Ethnobiological Knowledge and Bioprospecting. In: Bridges Between Tradition and Innovation in Ethnomedicine. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1113-6_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1113-6_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-1112-9
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-1113-6
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)