Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Chemical Pollutants Threatening Food Safety and Security: An Overview

  • Conference paper
  • First Online:
Advances in Food Protection

Abstract

Food passing several stages in the long and sophisticated food chain processing (from farm to fork) before being consumed and in each stage can cause morbidity and mortality, and also destruction to food industry. This is because food is a vulnerable media for contamination by thousands of biological, chemical and physical agents, and radio nuclear materials. Such contamination may occur intentionally or unintentionally far of “intended crime.” On the other side, food may deliberately contaminate within “intended terroristic crime.” Food and water contamination remains the easiest way to distribute toxic agents for the purpose of terrorism. Intentional contamination of food and water supplies by such harmful agents for terrorist purpose is a real and current threat to consumer’s health. This presentation addresses the chemical contamination of foods. Unlike most microbiological agents, chemical contaminants present in foods are often unaffected by thermal processing. They can be classified according to the source of contamination and the mechanism by which they enter the food product. They include a wide range of agrochemicals used in agricultural practices and animal husbandry with the intent to increase crops and reduce costs. Such agents include pesticides (e.g. insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides), plant growth regulators, veterinary drugs (e.g. nitrofuran, fluoroquinolones, malachite green, chloramphenicol), and bovine somatotropin (rBST). Moreover, food can be contaminated by chemicals that are present in the environment in which the food is grown, harvested, transported, stored, packaged, processed, and consumed. Possible contaminants include radio nuclides (e.g., cesium, strontium), heavy metals (e.g., arsenic, mercury, cadmium, copper), persistent organic pollutants, [e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), acrylamide, furan, perchlorate], as well as numerous substances attributed to packaging materials [e.g., antimony, tin, lead, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), semicarbazide, benzophenone, isopropylthioxanthone (ITX), bisphenol-A]. At present, melamine represents one of the largest deliberate food contaminant. Increasing incidences of cancer, chronic kidney diseases, suppression of the immune system, sterility among males and females, endocrine disorders, neurological and behavioral disorders, especially among children, have been attributed to chronic exposure to toxic chemicals and/or long-term consumption of food contaminated with such chemicals. Chronic exposure to food chemical contaminants may adversely affect human health even at contamination levels below MRLs (maximum residue limits) of each chemical. Furthermore, exposure through food to different contaminants may lead to additive or synergistic effects, a matter which poses an urgent need to improve our knowledge on such possible interactions at the intestinal level. Sophisticated analytical tools needed for detection of some chemical compounds, such as dioxins and nanoparticle materials, are not available in many countries, a matter which requires assisting these countries to raise their capacity building in this concern. On the other side, there is an urgent need for establishing a Security Plan Development (SPD) which can be realized easily and efficiently by implementing the principles of hazard analyses and critical control points (HACCP). In conclusion, although unintentional contamination of food could be controlled by local regulations, intentional contamination for the purpose of “terrorism” should be faced internationally and early as soon as multinational consequences are expected. Coordination between food-safety authorities worldwide is needed to efficiently exchange information and to enable tracking and recalling of affected products to ensure food safety and to protect public health. Cooperation between countries has to be activated and exchanging information is something very important to minimize threat and contamination on national, regional and international levels. Prevention and response are the two major strategies for countering the threat of food terrorist, and they are everyone’s responsibility all over the world in such manner.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. FDA (2008) Animal cloning: a risk assessment. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Center for Veterinary Medicine. Department of Health & Human Services. http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2006/NEW01541.html

  2. Fries GF (1995) A review of the significance of animal food products as potential pathways of human exposures to dioxins. J Anim Sci 73(6):1639–1650

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Tricker AR, Preussmann R (1990) Chemical food contaminants in the initiation of cancer. Proc Nutr Soc 49:133–144

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Croci L, De Santis B, Dekkers S, Filippi L, Hutjes RWA, Noordam MY, D’Mello JPF (2003) Food safety: contaminants and toxins. CABI, Wallingford/Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  5. Spears M, Gregorie M (2004) Foodservice organizations: a managerial and systems approach, 5th edn. Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River

    Google Scholar 

  6. Payne-Palacio J, Theis M (2001) West & Wood’s introduction to foodservice, 9th ed. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River. http://www.foodtimeline.org/restaurants.html. ©Lynne Olver 2000. Accessed 6 June 2010

  7. Reynolds D (2003) On-site foodservice management. Wiley, Hoboken

    Google Scholar 

  8. FDA (2003) Guidance for industry: retail food stores and foodservice establishment: food security preventive measures. U. S. Food and Drug Administration (November 2003). Retrieved from http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/guidance.html

  9. Biberoglu S, Biberoglu K, Komsuoglu G (1988) Mad honey. J Am Med Assoc 259:1943

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Head T, Landes R (1994) The peace of God: social violence and religious response in France around the year 1000. Speculum 69:163–169

    Google Scholar 

  11. Woolf A (2000) Witchcraft or mycotoxin? The Salem witch trials. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 38:457–460

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Emmerson BT (1970) “Ouch-ouch” disease: the osteomalacia of cadmium nephropathy. Ann Intern Med 73(5):854–855

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Bakir F, Damluji SF, Amin-Zaki L, Murtadha M, Khalidi A, Al-Rawi NY, Tikriti S, Dhahir HI, Clarkson TW, Smith JC, Doherty RA (1973) Methyl mercury poisoning in Iraq. Science 181:230–241

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Smith H, Spalding DM (1959) Outbreak of paralysis in Morocco due to orto-cresyl phosphate poisoning. Lancet 274(7110):1019–1021

    Google Scholar 

  15. Barceloux DG (2008) Medical toxicology of natural substances: foods, fungi, medicinal herbs, toxic plants, and venomous animals. Wiley, Hoboken, 1158 pp

    Google Scholar 

  16. Greenpeace and WWF-UK (2005) A present for life: hazardous chemicals in umbilical cord blood, Greenpeace Netherlands/Greenpeace International/WWF-UK, Sept 2005, ISBN 90-73361-87-7, 59 pp. http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/presentforlife.pdf

  17. Colborn T, Myers J, Dumanoski D (1996) Our stolen future. Dutton, NewYork, ISBN 0-525-93982-2

    Google Scholar 

  18. Srivastava S, Awasthi VK, Srivastava SP, Seth PK (1989) Biochemical alterations in rat fetal liver following in utero exposure to di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Indian J Exp Biol 27(10):885–888

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Skakkebaek NE, Meyts R-D, Main KM (2001) Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: an increasingly common developmental disorder with environmental aspects. Hum Reprod 16(5):972–978

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Harrad S, Wijesekera R, Hunter S, Halliwell C, Baker R (2004) Preliminary assessment of U.K. human dietary and inhalation exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Environ Sci Technol 38(8):2345–2350

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Greenpeace-UK (2003) Consuming chemicals – hazardous chemicals in house dust as an indicator of chemical exposure in the home. www.greenpeace.to/publications/housedust_uk_2003.pdf

  22. Greenpeace (2005) Perfume – an investigation of cChemicals in 36 Eaux de Toilette and Eaux de Parfum, Greenpeace International, Feb 2005, 16 pp. http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/perfume-an-investigation-of.pdf

  23. Okeeffe M, Kennedy O (1998) Residues – a food safety problem? J Food Saf 18:297–319

    Google Scholar 

  24. Rhodehamel EJ (1992) Overview of biological, chemical, and Physical hazards. In: Pierson MD, Corlett DA Jr (eds) HACCP principles and applications. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp 8–29

    Google Scholar 

  25. Ropkins K, Beck AJ (2003) Using HACCP to control organic chemical hazards in food wholesale, distribution, storage and retail. Trends Food Sci Technol 14:374–389

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Addis PB, Hassel CA (1992) Safety issues with antioxidants in foods. In: Finley JW, Robinson SF, Armstrong DJ (eds) Food safety assessment, vol 484, ACS symposium series. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp 346–376

    Google Scholar 

  27. Fleming HP, Daeschel MA, McFeeters RF, Pierson MD (1989) Butric-acid spoilage of fermented cucumbers. J Food Sci 54:636–639

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Bánáti D (2008) Fear of food in Europe? Fear of foods in Europe through Hungarian experience. Trends Food Sci Technol 19:441–444

    Google Scholar 

  29. Eurobarometer (2006) Risk issues. Special Eurobarometer 238/Wave 64.1 -TNS Opinion & Social: 57pp + Annexes

    Google Scholar 

  30. Khan AS, Swerdlow DL, Juranek DD (2001) Precautions against biological and chemical terrorism directed at food and water supplies. Public Health Rep 116(1):3–14

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Trewavas A (2004) A critical assessment of organic farming and food assertions with particular respect to the UK and the potential environmental benefits of no-till agriculture. Crop Prot 23:757–781

    Google Scholar 

  32. Gonzalez M, Miglioranza KSB, Aizpún de Moreno JE, Moreno VJ (2003) Occurrence and distribution of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) crops from organic production. J Agric Food Chem 51(5):1353–1359

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Gonzalez M, Miglioranza KSB, Aizpún de Moreno JE, Moreno VJ (2005) Evaluation of conventionally and organically produced vegetables for high lipophilic organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues. Food Chem Toxicol 43:261–269

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Salim A (2006) Evaluation of heavy metal contents and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) residues in Egyptian organically-farmed vegetables. J Agric Sci Mansoura Univ 31(3):1601–1612

    Google Scholar 

  35. Zohair A, Salim A, Soyibo AA, Beck AJ (2006) Residues of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides in organically-farmed vegetables. Chemosphere 63:541–553

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Mansour SA, Belal MH, Abou-Arab AAK, Ashour HM, Gad MF (2009) Evaluation of some pollutant levels in conventionally and organically farmed potato tubers and their risks to human health. Food Chem Toxicol 47:615–624

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Mansour SA, Belal MH, Abou-Arab AAK, Gad MF (2009) Monitoring of pesticides and heavy metals in cucumber fruits produced from different farming systems. Chemosphere 75:601–609

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Schecter A, Papke O, Tung KC, Staskal D, Birnbaum L (2004) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers contamination of United States food. Environ Sci Technol 8(20):5306–5311

    Google Scholar 

  39. WWF-UK (2006) Chain of contamination: the food link. World Wide Fund. 10 pp. Website: wwf.org.uk

    Google Scholar 

  40. WWF-UK (2005) Generations X. http://detox.panda.org/news_publications/publications_detail.cfm?uxNewsID=25616

  41. WWF-UK and Greenpeace (2005) A present for life: hazardous chemicals in umbilical cord blood. Text: Jacqueline Schuiling and Wytze van der Naald; 55 pp. www.greenpeace.org/chemicals

  42. Friends of the Earth Europe (2005) Toxic inheritance – More than 300 pollutants in breast milk – time for a new chemicals policy. http://www.foeeurope.org/publications/2005/toxic_inheritance.pdf

  43. Gearhart J, Posselt H (2006) Toxic at any speed. Chemicals in cars and the need for safe alternatives. The Ecology Center Report, 32 pp. (www.ecocenter.org/dust/ToxicAtAnySpeed.pdf)

  44. WWF International Arctic Programme and WWF-DetoX (2006) Killing them softly: health effects in Arctic wildlife linked to chemical exposures. (http://assets.panda.org/downloads/arctic_report___8_pager.pdf)

  45. WWF International Arctic Programme (2005) The tip of the iceberg: Chemical contamination in the Arctic. (http://assets.panda.org/downloads/the_tip_of_the_iceberg___summary.pdf)

  46. European Commission (2006) Environment fact sheet: REACH a chemicals policy for the EU. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/reach/fact_sheet.pdf

  47. Mansour SA (2009) Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Africa: Egyptian Scenario. Hum Exp Toxicol 28(9):531–566

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Anonymous (2001) Persistent organic pollutants and the Stockholm Convention: a resource guide. A report prepared by Resource Futures International for the World Bank and CIDA, 2001, 22 pp

    Google Scholar 

  49. WWF-UK (2004) Contamination: the next generation. http://www.wwf.org.uk/chemicals/publications.asp

  50. Guenther K, Heinke V, Thiele B, Kleist E, Prast H, Raecker T (2002) Endocrine disrupting nonylphenols are ubiquitous in food. Environ Sci Technol 36(8):1676–1680

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Harner T, Pozo K, Gouin T, Macdonald A-M, Hung H, Cainey J, Peters A (2006) Global pilot study for persistent organic pollutants (POPs) using PUF disk passive air samplers. Environ Pollut 144:445–452

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Lichtenstein EP (1959) Absorption of some chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides from soils into various crops. J Agric Food Chem 14:62–65

    Google Scholar 

  53. Mattina MJI, Ianucci-Berger W, Dykas L (2000) Chlordane uptake and its translocation in food crops. J Agric Food Chem 48:1909–1915

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. DHHS (1998) 8th Report on carcinogens, summary. US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  55. Covaci A, Jorens P, Jacquemyn Y, Schepens R (2002) Distribution of PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in umbilical cord and maternal serum. Sci Total Environ 45–53:298

    Google Scholar 

  56. WWF (Apr 2004) Chemical check up – an analysis of chemicals in the blood of Members of the European Parliament, 48 pp. http://www.panda.org/detox

  57. Dorner G, Plagemann A (2002) DDT in human milk and mental capacities in children at school age:an additional view on PISA 2000. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 23(5–6):427–431

    Google Scholar 

  58. Eriksson P (1997) Developmental neurotoxicity of environmental agents in the neonate. Neurotoxicology 18(3):719–726

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Eskenazi B, Bradman A, Castorina R (1999) Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects. Environ Health Perspect 107(suppl 3):409–419

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. WWF-UK (June 2004) Compromising our children – chemical impacts on children’s intelligence and behaviour, 29 pp. www.wwf.org.uk/chemicals

  61. WWF-UK (2003) Contamination: the results of WWF’s Biomonitoring Survey. 32 pp. www.wwf.org.uk

  62. Ohta S, Ishizuka D, Nishimura H, Nakao T, Aozasa O, Shimidzu Y, Ochiai F, Kida T, Nishi M, Miyata H (2002) Comparison of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in fish, vegetables, and meats and levels in human milk of nursing women in Japan. Chemosphere 46(5):689–696

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Guvenius DM, Aronsson A, Ekman-Ordeberg G, Bergman A, Noren K (2003) Human prenatal and postnatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorobiphenylols, and pentachlorophenol. Environ Health Perspect 111(9):1235–1241

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Hardell L, Lindstrom G, van Bavel B, Wingfors H, Sundelin E, Liljegren G (1998) Concentrations of the flame retardant 2, 2’, 4, 4’- tetrabrominated diphenyl ether in human adipose tissue in Swedish persons and the risk for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Oncol Res 10(8):429–432

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Schroter-Kermani (2001) Endocrine disrupters in human and environmental samples from the German Environmental Specimen Bank. In: Proceedings of the second status seminar: endocrine disrupters, Berlin, 2–4 Apr, 2001

    Google Scholar 

  66. Meironyte D, Noren K, Bergmann A (1999) Analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Swedish human milk. A time-related trend study, 1972–1997. J Toxicol Environ Health A 58:329–341

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Hooper K, She J (2003) Lessons from the polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): precautionary principle, primary prevention, and the value of community-based body-burden monitoring using breast milk. Environ Health Perspect 111(1):109–114

    Google Scholar 

  68. Mazdai A, Dodder NG, Abernathy MP, Hites RA, Bigsby RM (2003) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in maternal and fetal blood samples. Environ Health Perspect 111(9):1249–1252

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Thomsen C, Lundanes E, Becher G (2002) Brominated flame retardants in archived serum samples from Norway: a study on temporal trends and the role of age. Environ Sci Technol 36(7):1414–1418

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Meerts IA, van Zanden JJ, Luijks EA, van Leeuwen-Bol I, Marsh G, Jakobsson E, Bergman A, Brouwer A (2000) Potent competitive interactions of some brominated flame retardants and related compounds with human transthyretin in vitro. Toxicol Sci 56(1):95–104

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Olsen CM, Meussen-Elholm ET, Samuelsen M, Holme JA, Hongslo JK (2003) Effects of the environmental oestrogens bisphenol A, tetrachlorobisphenol A, tetrabromobisphenol A, 4-hydroxybiphenyl and 4, 4’-dihydroxybiphenyl on oestrogen receptor binding, cell proliferation and regulation of oestrogen sensitive proteins in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. Pharmacol Toxicol 92(4):180–188

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Darnerud PO (2003) Toxic effects of brominated flame retardants in man and in wildlife. Environ Int 29(6):841–853

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Darnerud PO, Eriksen GS, Johannesson T, Larsen PB, Viluksela M (2001) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers: occurrence, dietary exposure, and toxicology. Environ Health Perspect 109(suppl 1):49–68

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Main KM, Mortensen GK, Kaleva MM, Boisen KA, Damgaard IN, Chellakooty M, Schmidt IM, Suomi A-M, Virtanen HE, Petersen JH, Andersson A-M, Toppari J, Skakkebaek NE (2006) Human breast milk contamination with phthalates and alterations of endogenous reproductive hormones in infants three months of age. Environ Health Perspect 114(2):270–276

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Swan SH, Main KM, Liu F, Stewart SL, Kruse RL, Calafat AM, Mao CS, Redmon JB, Ternard CL, Sullivan S, Teague JL, Study for future families research team (2005) Decrease in anogenital distance among male infants with prenatal phthalate exposure. Environ Health Perspect 113(8):1056–1061

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Dostal LA, Weaver RP, Schwetz BA (1987) Transfer of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate through rat milk and effects on milk composition and the mammary gland. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 91(3):315–325

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Parmar D, Srivastava SP, Srivastava SP, Seth PK (1985) Hepatic mixed function oxidases and cytochrome P-450 contents in rat pups exposed to di-(2- ethylhexyl)phthalate through mother’s milk. Drug Metab Dispos 13(3):368–370

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Rimkus G, Rimkus B, Wolf M (1994) Nitro musks in human adipose tissue and breast milk. Chemosphere 28(2):421–433

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Barr DB, Silva MJ, Kato K, Reidy JA, Malek NA, Hurtz D, Sadowski M, Needham LL, Calafat AM (2003) Assessing human exposure to phthalates using monoesters and their oxidized metabolites as biomarkers. Environ Health Perspect 111(9):1148–1151

    Google Scholar 

  80. CDC (2003) Second national report on human exposure to environmental chemicals. (Revised version). Centres for disease control and prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Atlanta. NCEH Pub. No. 02-0716. http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/pdf/secondNER.pdf. Accessed Sept 2003

  81. Koch HM, Drexler H, Angerer J (2003) An estimation of the daily intake of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and other phthalates in the general population. Int J Hyg Environ Health 206(2):77–83

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Takada H, Isobe T, Nakada N, Nishiyama H, Iguchi T, Irie H, Mori C (1999) Bisphenol A and nonylphenols in human umbilical cords. In: Proceedings of the international scientific conference on environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals, Monte Verita, Ascona, 7–12 Mar 1999

    Google Scholar 

  83. Kafferlein HU, Angerer J (2001) Trends in the musk xylene concentrations in plasma samples from the general population from 1992/1993 to 1998 and the relevance of dermal uptake. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 74(7):470–476

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Rimkus GG, Wolf M (1996) Polycyclic musk fragrances in human adipose tissue and human milk. Chemosphere 33(10):2033–2043

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Bitsch N, Dudas C, Korner W, Failing K, Biselli S, Rimkus G, Brunn H (2002) Estrogenic activity of musk fragrances detected by the E-screen assay using human mcf-7 cells. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 43(3):257–264

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Schreurs RH, Quaedackers ME, Seinen W, van der Burg B (2002) Transcriptional activation of estrogen receptor ERalpha and ERbeta by polycyclic musks is cell type dependent. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 183(1):1–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Doering DD, Steckelbroeck S, Doering T, Klingmuller D (2002) Effects of butyltins on human 5alpha-reductase type 1 and type 2 activity. Steroids 67(10):859–887

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Lo S, Allera A, Albers P, Heimbrecht J, Jantzen E, Klingmuller D, Steckelbroeck S (2003) Dithioerythritol (DTE) prevents inhibitory effects of triphenyltin (TPT) on the key enzymes of the human sex steroid hormone metabolism. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 84(5):569–576

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Steckelbroeck S, Heidrich D, Heimbrecht J, Klingmuller D (2001) Effects of triphenyltin (TPT) on the key enzymes of the human sex steroid hormone metabolism. In: Proceedingof second status seminar: endocrine disrupters, Berlin, 2–4 Apr 2001, Germany, Abstracts, p127

    Google Scholar 

  90. Adeeko A, Li D, Forsyth DS, Casey V, Cooke GM, Barthelemy J, Cyr DG, Trasler JM, Robaire B, Hales BF (2003) Effects of in utero tributyltin chloride exposure in the rat on pregnancy outcome. Toxicol Sci 74(2):407–415

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. van Heijst APN (1994)Tributyltin compounds. International programme on chemical safety group poisons information monograph: G018. http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/chemical/pimg018.ht. Accessed Sept 2003

  92. Takahashi S, Mukai H, Tanabe S, Sakayama K, Miyazaki T, Masuno H (1999) Butyltin residues in livers of humans and wild terrestrial mammals and in plastic products. Environ Pollut 106(2):213–218

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. IPCS (1999)Tributyltin oxide. International programme on chemical safety concise international chemical assessment document: 14. http://www.inchem.org/documents/cicads/cicads/cicad14.htm#PartNumber:14. Accessed Sept 2003

  94. Zaidi MI, Asrar A, Mansoor A, Farooqui MA (2005) The heavy metal concentrations along roadside trees of Quetta and its effects on public health. J Appl Sci 5(4):708–711

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Trichopoulos D (1997) Epidemiology of Cancer. In: DeVita VT (ed) Cancer: principles and practice of Oncology. Lippincott, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  96. Turkdogan MK, Kilicel F, Kara K, Tuncer I (2002) Heavy metals in soil, vegetables and fruits in the endemic upper gastrointestinal cancer region of Turkey. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 13:175–179

    Google Scholar 

  97. Sharma RK, Agrawal M, Marshall FM (2008) Heavy metal (Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb) contamination of vegetables in urban India: a case study in Varanasi. Environ Pollut 154:254–263

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Rangan C, Barceloux DG (2008) Medical toxicology of natural substances: foods, fungi, medicinal herbs, toxic plants, and venomous animals. In: Food contamination: chemical contamination and additives. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 5–21

    Google Scholar 

  99. Peterson J, MacDonell M, Haroun L, Monette F (2007) Radiological and chemical fact sheets to support health risk analyses for contaminated areas. Argonne National Laboratory, Environmental Science Division, Argonne (Aug). http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/dsp_detail.cfm?PubID=1472

  100. Goodson A, Summerfield W, Cooper I (2002) Survey of bisphenol A and bisphenol F in canned food. Food Addit Contam 19:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  101. Greenpeace Netherlands (November 2004) Chemical footprints in blood – the evidence. Produced by Stichting Greenpeace Nederland. Text: Jacqueline Schuiling: 28 pp

    Google Scholar 

  102. Schonfelder G, Wittfoht W, Hopp H, Talsness CE, Paul M, Chahoud I (2002) Parent bisphenol A accumulation in the human maternal–fetal–placental unit. Environ Health Perspect 110(11):A703–A707

    Google Scholar 

  103. Kuroda N, Kinoshita Y, Sun Y, Wada M, Kishikawa N, Nakashima K, Makino T, Nakazawa H (2003) Measurement of bisphenol A levels in human blood serum and ascetic fluid by HPL causing a fluorescent labeling reagent. J Pharm Biomed Anal 30(6):1743–1749

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Stoker C, Rey F, Rodriguez H, Ramos JG, Sirosky P, Larriera A, Luque Munoz-de-Toro M (2003) Sex reversal effects on Caiman latirostris exposed to environmentally relevant doses of the xenoestrogen bisphenol-A. Gen Comp Endocrinol 133(3):287–296, Oct 1

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Palanza P, Howdeshell KL, Parmigiani S, vom Saal FS (2002) Exposure to a low dose of bisphenol A during fetal life or in adulthood alters maternal behaviour in mice. Environ Health Perspect 110(suppl 3):415–422

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Dessi-Fulgheri F, Porrini S, Farrabollini F (2002) Effects of perinatal exposure to bisphenol A on play behaviour of female and juvenile rats. Environ Health Perspect 110(suppl 3):403–407

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Kawai K, Nozaki T, Nishikata H, Aou S, Takii M, Kubo C (2003) Aggressive behavior and serum testosterone concentration during the maturation process of Male Mice: the effects of fetal exposure to bisphenol A. Environ Health Perspect 111(2):175–178

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Kubo K, Arai O, Omura M, Omura M, Watanabe R, Ogata R, Aou S (2003) Low dose effects on bisphenol A on sexual differentiation of the brain and behaviour in rats. Neurosci Res 45(3):345–356

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Rice D (2000) Parallels between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and behavioral deficits produced by neurotoxic exposure in monkeys. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 3):405–408

    Google Scholar 

  110. Ikezuki Y, Tsutsumi O, Takai Y, Kamei Y, Taketani Y (2002) Determination of bisphenol A concentrations in human biological fluids reveals significant early prenatal exposure. Hum Reprod 17(11):2839–2841

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Howdeshell KL, Hotchkiss AK, Thayer KA, Vandenbergh JG, vom Saal FS (1999) Exposure to bisphenol A advances puberty. Nature 401(6755):763–764

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Houlihan J, Wiles R, Thayer K, Gray S (2003) Body burden. The pollution in people. Environmental Working Group, Washington, DC. http://www.ewg.org/reports/bodyburden/. Accessed Sept 2003

  113. Lopez-Cervantes J, Paseiro-Losada P (2003) Determination of bisphenol A in, and its migration from PVC stretch film used for food packaging. Food Addit Contam 20(6):596–606

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Ozaki A, Baba T (2003) Alkylphenol and bisphenol A levels in rubber products. Food Addit Contam 20(1):92–98

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Brede C, Fjeldal P, Skjevrak I, Herikstad H (2003) Increased migration levels of bisphenol A from polycarbonate baby bottles after dishwashing, boiling and brushing. Food Addit Contam 20(7):684–689

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Inoue K, Kato K, Yoshimura Y, Makino T, Nakazawa H (2000) Determination of bisphenol A in human serum by highperformance liquid chromatography with multi-electrode electrochemical detection. J Chromatogr Biomed Sci Appl 749(1):17–23

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Yamasaki H, Nagake Y, Makino H (2001) Determination of bisphenol A in effluents of hemodialyzers. Nephron 88(4):376–378

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Uchida K, Suzuki A, Kobayashi Y, Buchanan DL, Sato T, Watanabe H, Katsu Y, Suzuki J, Asaoka K, Mori C, Arizono K, Iguchi T (2002) Bisphenol-A administration during pregnancy results in female exposure in mice and monkeys. J Health Sci 48:579–582

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Takeuchi T, Tsutsumi O (2002) Serum bisphenol A concentrations showed gender differences, possibly linked to androgen levels. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 291(1):76–78

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Eckstein M (2008) Enhancing public health preparedness for a terrorist attack involving cyanide. J Emerg Med 35(1):59–65

    Google Scholar 

  121. Bismuth C, Borron SW, Baudd FJ, Barriot P (2004) Chemical weapons: documented use and compounds on the horizon. Toxicol Lett 149:11–18

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Maranghi F, Tassinari R, Marcoccia D, Altieri I, Catone T, De Angelis G, Testai E, Mastrangelo S, Maria Grazia Evandri MG, Bolle P, Lorenzetti S (2010) The food contaminant semicarbazide acts as an endocrine disrupter: Evidence from an integrated in vivo/in vitro approach. Chem Biol Interact 183:40–48

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Bendall JG (2008) Semicarbazide is non-specific as a marker metabolite to reveal nitrofurazone abuse as it can form under Hofmann conditions. Food Addit Contam 12:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  124. Maranghi F, Tassinari R, Lagatta V, Moracci G, Eusepi MA, Di Virgilio A, Scattoni ML, Calamandrei G (2009) Effects of the food contaminant semicarbazide following oral administration in juvenile Sprague–Dawley rats. Food Chem Toxicol 47:472–479

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Mantovani A (2002) Hazard identification and risk assessment of endocrine disrupting chemicals with regard to developmental effects – Rev. Toxicology 181-182:367–370

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Smith J, Hong-Shum L (eds) (2003) Food additives data book. Blackwell Science, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  127. Maga JA, Tu AT (eds) (1994) Food additive toxicology. Marcel Dekker, New York

    Google Scholar 

  128. Bann B, Miller SA (1958) Melamine and derivatives of melamine. Chem Rev 58:131–172

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Tyan Y-C, Yang M-H, Jong S-B, Wang C-K, Shiea J (2009) Melamine contamination. Anal Bioanal Chem 395:729–735

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Gossner CM-E, Schlundt J, Embarek PB, Hird S, Lo-Fo-Wong D, Beltran JJO, Teoh KN, Tritscher A (2009) The melamine incident: implications for international food and feed safety. Environ Health Perspect 117(12):1803–1808

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Brown CA, Jeong K-S, Poppenga RH, Puschner B, Miller DM, Ellis AE, Kang K-Il, Sum S, Cistola AM, Brown SA (2007) Outbreaks of renal failure associated with melamine and cyanuric acid in dogs and cats in 2004 and 2007. J Vet Diagn Invest 19:525–531

    Google Scholar 

  132. Kennaway EL (1921) The estimation of non-protein nitrogen in blood by a micro-Kjeldahl method. Biochem J 15:510–512

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Abernethy DR, Sheehan C, Griffiths JC, Williams RL (2008) Adulteration of drugs and foods: compendial approaches to lowering risk. Clin Pharmacol Ther 85:444–447

    Google Scholar 

  134. Dobson RL, Motlagh S, Quijano M, Cambron RT, Baker TR, Pullen AM, Regg BT, Bigalow-Kern AS, Vennard T, Fix A, Reimschuessel R, Overmann G, Shan Y, Daston GP (2008) Identification and characterization of toxicity of contaminants in pet food leading to an outbreak of renal toxicity in cats and dogs. Toxicol Sci 106:251–262

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Hammond BG, Barbee SJ, Inoue T, Ishida N, Levinskas GJ, Stevens MW, Wheeler AG, Cascieri T (1986) A review of toxicology studies on cyanurate and its chlorinated derivatives. Environ Health Perspect 69:287–292

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. IUCLID (2008) IUCLID chemical data sheet: substance ID 108-78-1, pp 30–98

    Google Scholar 

  137. OECD (Organisation for economic co-operation and development) (2002) SIDS Analysis. UNEP Publications, Melamine

    Google Scholar 

  138. Cianciolo RE, Bischoff K, Ebel JG, Van Winkle TJ, Goldstein RE, Serfilippi LM (2008) Clinicopathologic, histologic, and toxicologic findings in 70 cats in advertently exposed to pet food contaminated with melamine and cyanuric acid. J Am Vet Med Assoc 233:729–737

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Puschner B, Poppenga RH, Lowenstine LJ, Filigenzi MS, Pesavento PA (2007) Assessment of melamine and cyanuric acid toxicity in cats. J Vet Diagn Invest 19:616–624

    Google Scholar 

  140. WHO (2009) Toxicological and health aspects of melamine and cyanuric acid. World Health Organization, Geneva. Available: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/fs_management/infosan_events/en/index.html. Accessed 21 Oct 2009

  141. WHO (2008) Melamine and cyanuric acid: toxicity, preliminary risk assessment and guidance on levels in food. World Health Organization, Geneva. Available: http://www.who.int/entity/foodsafety/fs_management/Melamine.pdf. Accessed 21 Oct 2009)

  142. WHO (2004) Sodium dichloroisocyanurate. In: Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants, vol 52, WHO Food Additives Series. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  143. Heck HD, Tyl RW (1985) The induction of bladder stones by terephthalic acid, dimethyl terephthalate, and melamine (2, 4, 6-triamino-s-triazine) and its relevance to risk assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 5:294–313

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. NTP (1983) Carcinogenesis bioassay of melamine (CAS No. 108-78-1) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Feed Study). TR 245. Research triangle park, NC: National toxicology program. Available: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/LT_rpts/tr245.pdf. Accessed 21 Oct 2009

  145. Reimschuessel R, Gieseker CM, Miller RA, Ward J, Boehmer J, Rummel N, Heller DN, Nochetto C, Hemakanthi de Alwis GK, Bataller N, Andersen WC, Turnipseed SB, Karbiwnyk CM, Satzger RD, Crowe JB, Wilber NR, Reinhard MK, Roberts JF, Witkowski MR (2008) Evaluation of the renal effects of experimental feeding of melamine and cyanuric acid to fish and pigs. Am J Vet Res 69(9):1217–1228

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Čapek P, Dickerson TJ (2010) Sensing the deadliest toxin: technologies for botulinum neurotoxin detection. Toxins 2:24–53

    Google Scholar 

  147. Singh NP, Anuradha S, Dhanwal DK, Singh K, Prakash A, Madau K, Agarwal SK (2000) Epidemic dropsy – a clinical study of the Delhi outbreak. J Assoc Physicians India 48:877–880

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Arnon SS, Schechter R, Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, Eitzen E, Fine AD, Hauer J, Layton M, Lillibridge S, Osterholm MT, O’Toole T, Parker G, Perl TM, Russell PK, Swerdlow DL, Tonat K, Working Group on Civilian Biodefense (2001) Botulinum toxin as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA 285(8):1059–1070

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Wagacha JM, Muthomi JW (2008) Mycotoxin problem in Africa: current status, implications to food safety and health and possible management strategies. Int J Food Microbiol 124:1–12

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Kumar V, Basu MS, Rajendran TP (2008) Mycotoxin research and mycoflora in some commercially important agricultural commodities. Crop Protec 27:891–905

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Refai MK (1988) Aflatoxins and aflatoxicosis. J Egypt Vet Med Assoc 48:1–19

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Wary BB (1981) Aflatoxin, hepatitis B-virus and hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med 305:833–843

    Google Scholar 

  153. Sedmikova M, Reisnerova H, Dufkova Z, Barta I, Jilek F (2001) Potential hazard of simultaneous occurrence of aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A. Vet Med Czech 46:169–174

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Paterson RRM (2006) Fungi and fungal toxins as weapons. Mycol Res 10(9):1003–1010

    Google Scholar 

  155. Bennett JW, Klich M (2003) Mycotoxins. Clin Microbiol Rev 16(3):497–516

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. He J, Zhou T, Young JC, Boland GJ, Scott PM (2009) Chemical and biological transformations for detoxification of trichothecene mycotoxins in human and animal food chains: a review. Trends Food Sci Technol 21(2):67–76

    Google Scholar 

  157. Rocha O, Ansari K, Doohan FM (2005) Effects of trichothecene mycotoxins on eukaryotic cells: a review. Food Addit Contam 22:369–378

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Lancova K, Hajslova J, Poustka J, Krplova A, Zachariasova M, Dostalek P, Saschambula L (2008) Transfer of Fusarium mycotoxins and “masked” deoxynivalenol (deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside) from field barley through malt to beer. Food Addit Contam 25:732–744

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Pittet A (2001) Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in foods and feeds: a decade in review. In: De Koe WJ, Samson RA, van Egmond HP, Gilbert J, Sabino M (eds) Mycotoxins and phycotoxins in perspective at the turn of the Millennium. W.J. de Koe, Wageningen, pp 153–172

    Google Scholar 

  160. Goyarts T, Dnicke S, Valenta H, Ueberschär KH (2007) Carry-over of Fusarium toxins (deoxynivalenol and zearalenone) from naturally contaminated wheat to pigs. Food Addit Contam 24:369–380

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Seeling K, Dänicke S, Valenta H, Van Egmond HP, Schothorst RC, Jekel AA, Lebzien P, Schollenberger M, Razzazi-Fazeli E, Flachowsky G (2006) Effects of Fusarium toxin-­contaminated wheat and feed intake level on the biotransformation and carry-over of deoxynivalenol in dairy cows. Food Addit Contam 23:1008–1020

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Valenta H, Dänicke S (2005) Study on the transmission of deoxynivalenol and deepoxy-deoxynivalenol into eggs of laying hens using a high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet method with clean-up by immunoaffinity columns. Mol Nutr Food Res 49:779–785

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Kortepeter M, Christopher G, Cieslak T, Culpepper R, Darling R, Pavlin J, Rowe J, McKee K Jr, Eitzen E Jr (eds) (2001) USAMRIID’s medical management of biological casualties handbook. US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick

    Google Scholar 

  164. Bhaskar ASB, Deb U, kumar O, Rao PVL (2008) Abrin induced oxidative stress mediated DNA damage in human leukemic cells and its reversal by N-acetylcycteine. Toxicol In Vitro 22:1902–1908

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Sekheta MAF, Sahtout AH, Farid N, Sekheta NF, Pantovic N, Al Omari AT (2006) Terrorist threats to food & water supplies and the role of HACCP implementation as one of the major effective and preventive measures. Internet J Food Saf 8:30–34

    Google Scholar 

  166. Sobel J, Khan AS, Swerdlow DL (2002) Threat of a biological terrorist attack on the US food supply: the CDC prospective. Lancet 359:874–880

    Google Scholar 

  167. Sekheta MAF, Sahtout AH, Sekheta NF, Kapkovic M, Pantovic N (2005) The HACCP implementation and the mental illness of food handlers as the 4th eventual hazard. Internet J Food Saf 6:5–10

    Google Scholar 

  168. Miraglia M, Marvin HJP, Kleter GA, Battilani P, Brera C, Coni E, Cubadda F, Mumtaz MM, Ruiz P, De Rosa CT (2007) Toxicity assessment of unintentional exposure to multiple chemicals. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 223:104–113

    Google Scholar 

  169. Azzazy HME, Mansour MMH (2009) In vitro diagnostic prospects of nanoparticles. Clin Chim Acta 403(1–2):1–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. IPCC (2007) Intergovernmental panel on climate change – IPCC. Mitigation from a cross-sectorial perspective. Working group III report, mitigation of climate change – Chapter 11. Available in: http://www.ipcc.ch. Accessed 20 Sept 2007

  171. FAO (1998) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Declaração de Roma sobre a segurança alimentar mundial e plano de acção da cimeira mundial da alimentação. Available in: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3613p/w3613p00.htm. Accessed: 05/07/2007)

  172. United Nations (2007) World population prospects: the 2006 revision and world urbanization prospects. Available in: http://esa.un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp. Accessed 25 May 2007

  173. WWF (2007) WWF – position on biofuels in the EU; 2007. Available in: http://www.wwf.org. Accessed 15 May 2007

  174. WHO (2006) Total diet studies: a Recipe for safer food. International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN). INFOSAN information note No. 06/2006 –Total diet studies; 3 pp

    Google Scholar 

  175. Kleter G, Prandini A, Filippi L, Marvin HJP (2009) Identification of potentially emerging food safety issues by analysis of reports published by the European Community’s Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) during a four-year period. Food Chem Toxicol 47(5):932–950

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. De Rosa C, Hicks T, Ashizawa HE, Pohl A, Mumtaz M (2006) A regional approach to assess the impact of living in a chemical world. Ann NY Acad Sci 1076:829–838

    Google Scholar 

  177. Department of Health and Human Services – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2005). Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. www.clu-in.org/download/contaminantfocus/pcb/third-report.pdf

  178. Durocher J (2003) Better safe. Restaur Bus 102(8):90–91

    Google Scholar 

  179. Haynes JR, Beck JE (2004) Evaluating security readiness in foodservice using (SARA), safety analysis risk assessment. J Fam Consum Sci Educ 22(1):1, Spring/Summer 2004

    Google Scholar 

  180. Pisante M, Piva G, Prandini A, Toti L, van den Born GJ, Vespermann A (2009) Climate change and food safety: an emerging issue with special focus on Europe. Food Chem Toxicol 47(5):1009–1021

    Google Scholar 

  181. Prewitt M (May 24, 2004) The 7 cardinal sins of foodservice: failure to make safe haven for staff risks harm to bottom line. Nations Restaurant News, pp 62–64

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Environmental Toxicology Research Unit (ETRU), Department of Pesticide Chemistry, National Research Centre, Tahrir Street, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt

    Sameeh A. Mansour

Authors
  1. Sameeh A. Mansour
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sameeh A. Mansour .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Ag-Tech International Inc., Cal Dobson Trail 237, Greeneville, 37743, Tennessee, USA

    Magdy Hefnawy

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this paper

Cite this paper

Mansour, S.A. (2011). Chemical Pollutants Threatening Food Safety and Security: An Overview. In: Hefnawy, M. (eds) Advances in Food Protection. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series A: Chemistry and Biology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1100-6_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation