Abstract
Coral reefs are the jewels of the tropical oceans. They boast the highest diversity of all marine ecosystems, aid in the development and protection of other important, productive coastal marine communities, and have provided millions of people with food, building materials, protection from storms, recreation and social stability over thousands of years, and more recently, income, active pharmacological compounds and other benefits. These communities have been deteriorating rapidly in recent times. The continuous emergence of coral reef diseases and increase in bleaching events caused in part by high water temperatures among other factors underscore the need for intensive assessments of their ecological status and causes and their impact on coral reefs.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Acosta A (2001) Disease in zoanthids: dynamics in space and time. Hydrobiologia 460:113–130
Aeby GS (2006a) Outbreak of coral disease in the Northwestern Hawaiian islands. Coral Reefs 24:481
Aeby GS (2006b) Baseline levels of coral disease in the Northwestern Hawaiian islands. Atoll Res Bull 543:471–488
Aeby GS, Santavy DL (2006) Factors affecting susceptibility of the coral Montastraea faveolata to black-band disease. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 318:103–110
Ainsworth TD, Fine M, Roff G, Hoegh-Guldberg O (2008) Bacteria are not the primary cause of bleaching in the Mediterranean coral Oculina patagonica. ISME J 2:67–73
Antonius A (1973) New observations on coral destruction in reefs. In: Tenth Meeting of the Association of Island Marine Laboratories of the Caribbean (abstract). University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, p 3
Antonius A (1977) Coral mortality in reefs: a problem for science and management. In: Proceedings of 3rd international coral reef symposium, vol 1, Miami, 1977, pp 617–623
Antonius A (1985) Coral diseases in the Indo-Pacific: a first record. PSZNI Mar Ecol 6:197–218
Aronson RB, Precht WF (2001a) Evolutionary palaeoecology of Caribbean coral reefs. In: Allmon WD, Bottjer DJ (eds) Evolutionary paleoecology: the ecological context of macro-evolutionary change. Columbia University Press, New York, pp 171–233
Aronson RB, Precht WF (2001b) White-band disease and the changing face of Caribbean coral reefs. In: Porter JW (ed) The ecology and etiology of newly emerging marine diseases, developments in hydrobiology. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 23–35
Ballantine D, Weil E, Ruiz H (2005) Coralline white band syndrome: a coralline algal affliction in the tropical Atlantic. Coral Reefs 24:117
Beeden R, Willis BL, Raymundo LJ, Page C, Weil E (2008) Underwater cards for assessing Coral health on Indo-Pacific reefs. GEF-CRTR Program, Center for Marine Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 18 pp
Bellwood DR, Hughes TP, Folke C, Nystrom M (2004) Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature 429:827–833
Ben-Haim Y, Thompson FL, Thompson CC, Cnockaert MC, Hoste B, Swings J, Rosenberg E (2003a) Vibrio coralliilyticus sp. nov., a temperature-dependent pathogen of the coral Pocillopora damicornis. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 53:309–315
Ben-Haim Y, Zicherman-Keren M, Rosenberg E (2003b) Temperature-regulated bleaching and lysis of the coral Pocillopora damicornis by the novel pathogen Vibrio coralliilyticus. Appl Environ Microbiol 69:4236–4242
Borneman EH, Wellington GW (2005) Pathologies affecting reef corals at the Flower Garden Banks, Northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Gulf Mexico Sci 1:95–106
Borger JL (2003) Three scleractinian coral diseases in Dominica, West Indies: distribution, infection patterns and contribution to coral tissue mortality. Rev Biol Trop 51(suppl 4):25–38
Borger JL, Steiner S (2005) The spatial and temporal dynamics of coral diseases in Dominica, West Indies. Bull Mar Sci 77:137–154
Bourne D, Iida Y, Uthicke S, Smith-Keune C (2007) Changes in coral-associated microbial communities during a bleaching event. ISME J 2:350–363
Boyett HV, Bourne DG, Willis BL (2007) Elevated temperature and light enhance progression and spread of black band disease on staghorn corals of the Great Barrier Reef. Mar Biol 151:1711–1720
Brown BE, Ogden JC (1993) Coral bleaching. Sci Am 268:64–70
Bruckner AW (2002) Priorities for effective management of coral diseases. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS-OPR-22, 54 pp
Bruckner AW (2009) The global perspective of incidence and prevalence of coral diseases. In: Galloway SB, Bruckner AW, Woodley CM (eds) (2007) Coral health and disease in the Pacific: vision for action. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NOS NCCOS 97 and CRCP 7 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, pp 90–120
Bruckner AW, Bruckner RJ (1997) Outbreak of coral disease in Puerto Rico. Coral Reefs 16:260
Bruckner AW, Bruckner R (2006) Consequences of yellow band disease on Montastraea annularis (species complex) populations on remote reefs off Mona Island, Puerto Rico. Dis Aquat Org 69:67–73
Bruckner AW, Hill R (2009) Ten years of change to coral communities off Mona and Desecheo islands, Puerto Rico, from disease and bleaching. Dis Aquat Org 87:19–31
Bruno JF, Selig ER (2007) Regional decline of coral cover in the Indo-Pacific: timing, extent, and sub-regional comparisons. PLoS ONE 2:e711. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000711
Bruno JF, Peters LE, Harvell CD, Hettinger A (2003) Nutrient enrichment can increase the severity of coral diseases. Ecol Lett 6:1056–1061
Bruno JF, Selig ER, Casey KS, Page CA, Willis BL (2007) Thermal stress and coral cover as drivers of coral disease outbreaks. PLoS Biol 5:e124. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050124
Bythell J, Pantos O, Richardson L (2004) White plague, white band and other “white” diseases. In: Rosenberg E, Loya Y (eds) Coral health and disease. Springer, New York, pp 351–366
Carlton R, Richardson LL (1995) Oxygen and sulfide dynamics in an horizontally migrating cyanobacterial mat: black-band disease of corals. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 18:144–162
Carpenter RC (1981) grazing by Diadema antillarum (Philippi) and its effects on the benthic algal community. J Mar Res 39:749–765
Carpenter RC (1985) Sea urchin mass mortality: effects on reef algal abundance, species composition, and metabolism and other coral reef herbivores. In: Proceedings of 5th international coral reef congress, vol 4, Tahiti, 1985, pp 53–60
Carpenter RC (1990a) Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum. I. Long-term effects on sea urchin population-dynamics and coral reef algal communities. Mar Biol 104:67–77
Carpenter RC (1990b) Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum. II. Effects on population densities and grazing intensity of parrotfishes and surgeonfishes. Mar Biol 104:79–86
Carpenter K, Livingston S et al (2008) One third of reef-building corals face elevated extinction risk from climate change and local impacts. Science 321:560–563
Cervino JM, Smith G (1997) Corals in peril. Ocean Realm 2:33–34
Cervino J, Goreau TJ, Nagelkerken I, Smith GW, Hayes R (2001) Yellow band and dark spots syndrome in Caribbean corals: distribution, rate of spread, cytology, and effects on abundance and division of zooxanthellae. In: Porter JW (ed) The ecology and etiology of newly emerging marine diseases, developments in hydrobiology. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 53–63
Cervino JM, Hayes RL, Polson SW, Polson SC, Goreau TJ, Martinez RJ, Smith GW (2004a) Relationship of Vibrio species infection and elevated temperatures to yellow blotch/band disease in Caribbean corals. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:6855–6864
Cervino JM, Hayes RL, Goreau TJ, Smith GW (2004b) Zooxanthellae regulation in yellow blotch/band and other coral diseases contrasted with temperature related bleaching: In situ destruction vs. expulsion. In: 4th international symbiosis congress, vol 37, Nova Scotia, 2004, pp 63–85
Cervino JM, Thompson FL, Gómez-Gil B, Lorence EA, Goreau TJ, Hayes RL, Winiarski KB, Smith GW, Hughen K, Bartells E (2008) Vibrio pathogens induce yellow band disease in Caribbean and Indo-Pacific reef-building corals. J Appl Microbiol. doi:10.1111/J.1365-2672.2008.03871x
Coelho VR, Manfrino C (2007) Coral community decline at a remote Caribbean island: marine no-take reserves are not enough. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 17:666–685
Cooney RP, Pantos O, Le Tissier MDA, Barer MR, O’Donnell AG, Bythell JC (2002) Characterization of the bacterial consortium associated with black band disease in coral using molecular microbiological techniques. Environ Microbiol 47:401–413
Cróquer A, Weil E (2009a) Local and geographic variability in distribution and prevalence of coral and octocoral diseases in the Caribbean II: genera-level analysis. Dis Aquat Org 83:209–222
Cróquer A, Weil E (2009b) Changes in Caribbean coral disease prevalence after the 2005 bleaching event. Dis Aquat Org 87:33–43
Cróquer A, Bastidas C, Lipscomb D, Rodríguez-Martínez RE, Jordan-Dahlgren E, Guzmán HM (2006a) First report of folliculinid ciliates affecting Caribbean corals. Coral Reefs 25:187–191
Cróquer A, Bastidas C, Lipscomb D (2006b) Folliculinid ciliates: a new threat to Caribbean corals? Dis Aquat Org 69:75–78
Cróquer A, Weil E, Zubillaga AL, Pauls SM (2005) Impact of an outbreak of white plague II on a coral reef in the Archipelago Los Roques National Park, Venezuela. Carib J Sci 41:815–823
Denner EBM, Smith GW, Busse HJ, Schumann P, Nartz T, Polson SW, Lubitz W, Richar-son LL (2003) Aurantimonas coralicida gen. nov., sp. nov., the causative agent of white plague type II on Caribbean scleractinian corals. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 53:1115–1122
Diaz JM, Garzon-Ferreira J, Zea S (1995) Los arrecifes coralinos de la isla de San Andrés, Colombia: estado actual y perspectivas para su conservación. Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas, y Naturales, Colección Jorge Alvarez Lleras, 95 pp
Dustan P (1977) Vitality of reef coral populations off Key Largo, Florida: recruitment and mortality. Environ Geol 2:51–58
Dustan P (1999) Coral reefs under stress: sources of mortality in the Florida Keys. Nat Resour Forum 23:147–155
Edmunds PJ (1991) Extent and effect of black band disease on Caribbean reefs. Coral Reefs 10:161–165
Epstein PR, Sherman K, Spanger-Siegfried E, Langston A, Prasad S, McKay B (1998) Marine ecosystems: emerging diseases as indicators of change. Health Ecological and Economic Dimensions (HEED), NOAA Global Change Program, 85 pp
Francini-Filho RB, Moura RL, Thompson FL, Reis RM, Kaufman L, Kikuchi RKP, Leão ZMAN (2008) Diseases leading to accelerated decline of reef corals in the largest South Atlantic reef complex (Abrolhos Bank, eastern Brazil). Mar Poll Bull 56:1008–1014
Flynn K (2008) Impact of the fungal disease aspergillosis on populations of the sea fan Gorgonia ventalina (Octocorallia, Gorgonacea) in La Parguera, Puerto Rico. MS thesis, University of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico, 85 pp
Flynn K, Weil E (2008) Impact of aspergillosis on the reproduction of the sea fan Gorgonia ventalina. Abstract. In: 11th international coral reef symposium, Ft. Lauderdale, 2008, p 307
Flynn K, Weil E (2010) Variability of Aspergillosis in Gorgonia ventalina in La Parguera, Puerto Rico. Caribb J Sci (in press)
Frias-Lopez J, Zerkle AL, Bonheyo GT, Fouke BW (2002) Partitioning of bacterial communities between seawater and healthy black band diseased and dead coral surfaces. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:2214–2228
Frias-Lopez J, Bonheyo GT, Jin Q, Fouke BW (2003) Cyanobacteria associated with coral black band disease in Caribbean and Indo-Pacific reefs. Appl Environ Microbiol 69:2409–2413
Galloway SB, Work TM, Bochsler VS et al (2007) Coral disease and health workshop: coral histopathology II. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 56 and NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP 4. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, 84 p
García-Sais J, Appeldoorn R, Battista T, Bauer L, Bruckner A, Caldow C, Carrubba L, Corredor J, Diaz E, Lilyestrom C, García-Moliner G, Hernández-Delgado E, Menza C, Morell J, Pait A, Sabater J, Weil E, Williams E, Williams S (2008) The state of coral reef ecosystems in Puerto Rico. In: Waddell JE, Clarke AM (eds) The state of coral reef ecosystems of the United States and Pacific freely associated states. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NOS NCCOS 73, pp 75–116
Gardner TA, Cote IM, Gill JA, Grant A, Watkinson AR (2003) Long-term region-wide declines in Caribbean corals. Science 301:958–960
Garrett P, Ducklow H (1975) Coral disease in Bermuda. Nature 253:349–350
Garzón-Ferreira J, Gil D (1998) Another unknown Caribbean coral phenomenon? Reef Encounters 24:10–13
Garzón-Ferreira J, Zea S (1992) A mass mortality of Gorgonia ventalina (Cnidaria: Gorgoniidae) in the Santa Marta area, Caribbean coast of Colombia. Bull Mar Sci 50:522–526
Geiser DM, Taylor JW, Ritchie KM, Smith GW (1998) Cause of sea-fan death in the West Indies. Nature 394:137–138
Gil-Agudelo DL (1998) Caracteristicas, incidencia y distribución de la enfermedad de “Lunares oscuros”: en corales pétreos del Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona, Caribe colombiano. Marine biology. Universidad de Bogota Jorge Tadeo Lozano, Bogota, 90 p
Gil-Agudelo DL, Garzón-Ferreira J (2001) Spatial and seasonal variation of dark spots disease in coral communities of the Santa Marta area (Colombian Caribbean). Bull Mar Sci 69:619–629
Gil-Agudelo DL, Smith GW, Weil E (2006) The white band disease type II pathogen in Puerto Rico. Rev Biol Trop 54:59–67
Gil-Agudelo D, Smith GW, Garzón-Ferreira J, Weil E, Peterson D (2004) Dark spots disease and yellow band disease, two poorly known coral diseases with high incidence in Caribbean reefs. In: Rosenberg E, Loya Y (eds) Coral health and disease. Springer, New York, pp 337–350
Gil-Agudelo D, Fonseca DP, Weil E, Garzón-Ferreira J, Smith GW (2007) Bacterial communities associated with the mucopolysaccharide layers of three coral species affected and unaffected with dark spots disease. Can J Microbiol 53:465–471
Gladfelter WB (1982) White band disease in Acropora palmata: implications for the structure and growth of shallow reefs. Bull Mar Sci 32:639–643
Goreau TJ, Cervino J, Goreau M, Hayes R, Hayes M, Richardson L, Smith GW, DeMeyer G, Nagelkerken I, Garzon-Ferreira J, Gill D, Peters EC, Garrison G, Williams EH, Bunkley-Williams L, Quirolo C, Patterson K (1998) Rapid spread of diseases in Caribbean coral reefs. Rev Biol Trop 46:157–171
Gotchfeld D, Olson J, Slattery M (2006) Colony versus population variation in susceptibility and resistance to dark spot syndrome in the Caribbean coral Siderastrea siderea. Dis Aquat Org 69:53–65
Green EP, Bruckner AW (2000) The significance of coral disease epizootiologyfor coral reef conservation. Biol Conserv 96:347–461
Guzmán HM, Cortés J (1984) Mass death of Gorgonia flabellum L. (Octocorallia: Gorgonidae) in the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica. Rev Biol Trop 32:305–308
Harvell CD, Kim K, Burkholder JM, Colwell RR, Epstein PR, Grimes DJ, Hofmann EE, Lipp EK, Osterhaus ADME, Overstreet AM, Porter JW, Smith GW, Vasta GR (1999) Emerging marine diseases–climate links and anthropogenic factors. Science 285:1505–1510
Harvell CD, Kim K, Quirolo C, Weir J, Smith GW (2001) Coral bleaching and disease: contribution to 1998 mass mortality of Briaeorum asbestinum (Octocorallia, Gorgonacea). In: Porter JW (ed) The ecology and etiology of newly emerging marine diseases, Developments in hydrobiology. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 97–104
Harvell CD, Mitchell CE, Ward JR, Altizer S, Dobson AP, Ostfeld RS, Samuel MD (2002) Climate warming and disease risk for terrestrial and marine biota. Science 296:2158–2162
Harvell CD et al (2005) The rising tide of ocean diseases: unsolved problems and research priorities. Front Ecol Environ 2:375–382
Harvell CD, Markel S, Jordan-Dahlgren E, Raymundo LJ, Rosenberg E, Smith GW, Willis BL, Weil E (2007) Coral disease, environmental drivers and the balance between coral and microbial associates. Oceanography 20:36–59
Harvell CD, Altize S, Cattadori IM, Harrington L, Weil E (2009) Climate change and wildlife diseases: when does the host matter the most? Ecology 90:912–920
Hayes ML, Bonaventura J, Mitchell TP, Prospero JM, Shinn EA, Van Dolah F, Barber RT (2001) How are climate and marine biological outbreaks functionally linked? Hydrobiologia 460:213–220
Hickerson E, Schmahl GP (2006) Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary coral disease monitoring. Cruise Summary, 9 pp
Hernández-Delgado EA, Toledo CG, Claudio H, Lassus J, Lucking MA, Fonseca J, Hall K, Rafols J, Horta H, Sabat AM (2006) Spatial and taxonomic patterns of coral bleaching and mortality in Puerto Rico during year 2005. Coral bleaching response workshop, NOAA, St. Croix, USVI, p 16
Hoegh-Guldberg O (1999) Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world’s coral reefs. Mar Freshw Res 50:839–866
Hoegh-Guldberg O, Mumby PJ, Hooten AJ, Steneck RS, Greenfield P, Gomez E, Harvell CD, Sale PF, Edwards AJ, Caldeira K, Knowlton N, Eakin CM, Iglesias-Prieto R, Muthiga N, Bradbury H, Dubi A, Hatziolos ME (2007) Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318:1737–1742
Hogarth WT (2006) Endangered and threatened species: final listing determinations for the Elkhorn coral and Staghorn coral. Federal Register, pp 26852–26861
Hubbard DK, Burke RB, Gill IP, Ramirez WR, Sherman C (2008) Coral reef geology: Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands. In: Riegl B, Dodge R (eds) Coral reefs of the USA. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 263–302
Hughes TP (1994) Catastrophes, phase shifts and large scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science 265:1547–1549
Hughes TP, Connell JH (1999) Multiple stressors on coral reefs: a long-term perspective. Limnol Oceanogr 44:932–940
Hughes TP, Tanner JE (2000) Recruitment failure, life histories, and long-term decline of Caribbean corals. Ecology 81:2250–2263
Hughes TP, Reed DC, Boyle MJ (1987) Herbivory on coral reefs: community structure following mass mortalities of sea urchins. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 113:39–59
Hughes TP, Baird AH, Bellwood DR, Card M, Connolly SR, Folke C, Grosberg R, Hoegh-Guldberg O, Jackson JBC, Kleypas J, Lough JM, Marshall P, Nystrom M, Palumbi SR, Pandolfi JM, Rosen B, Roughgarden J (2003) Climate change, human impacts and the resilience of coral reefs. Science 301:929–933
Jackson JBC, Kirby MX, Berger WH, Bjorndal KA, Botsford LW, Bourque BJ, Bradbury RH, Cooke R, Erlandson J, Estes JA, Hughes TP, Kidwell S, Lange CB, Lenihan HS, Pandolfi JM, Peterson CH, Steneck RS, Tegner MJ, Warner RR (2001) Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293:629–638
Jolles A, Sullivan PK, Alker A, Harvell CD (2002) Disease transmission of aspergillosis in sea fans: inferring process from spatial patterns. Ecology 83:2373–2378
Jonas RB, Gillevet P, Peters E (2006) Comparison of bacterial communities among corals exhibiting white-syndrome (disease) signs in the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Progress report, 13 pp
Kaczmarsky LT, Draud M, Williams EH (2005) Is there a relationship between proximity to sewage effluent and the prevalence of coral disease? Caribb J Sci 41:124–137
Kellogg CA, Zawada DG (2009) Applying new methods to diagnose coral diseases. USGS Fact Sheet 2009–3113
Kim K, Harvell CD (2002) Aspergillosis of sea fan corals: disease dynamics in the Florida Keys. In: Porter J, Porter K (eds) The Everglades, Florida Bay, and coral reefs of the Florida Keys, an ecosystem sourcebook. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 813–824
Kimes NE, Van Nostrand JD, Weil E, Zhou J, Morris PJ (2010) Microbial functional structure of Montastraea faveolata, an important Caribbean reef-building coral, differs between healthy and Caribbean yellow-band diseased colonies. Environ Microbiol 12:541–561. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920. 2009.02113.x
Knowlton N, Rohwer F (2003) Multispecies microbial mutualisms on coral reefs: the host as a habitat. Am Nat 162:51–62
Korrubel JL, Riegl BR (1998) A new disease from the southern Arabian Gulf. Coral Reefs 17:22
Lesser MP, Bythell JC, Gates RD, Johnstone RW, Hoegh-Guldberg O (2007) Are infectious diseases really killing corals? Alternative interpretations of the experimental and ecological data. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 346:36–44
Lessios HA (1988) Population dynamics of Diadema antillarum (Echinodermata: Echinodea) following mass mortality in Panamá. Mar Biol 95:515–526
Lessios HA, Cubit JD, Robertson RD, Shulman MJ, Parker MR, Garrity SD, Levings SC (1984a) Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum on the Caribbean coast of Panama. Coral Reefs 3:173–182
Lessios HA, Robertson DR, Cubit JD (1984b) Spread of Diadema mass mortality throughout the Caribbean. Science 226:335–337
Littler M, Littler D (1995) Impact of CLOD pathogen on Pacific coral reefs. Science 267:1356–1360
Loya Y (2004) The coral reefs of Eilat, past, present and future: three decades of coral community structure studies. In: Rosenberg E, Loya Y (eds) Coral health and disease. Springer, New York, pp 1–34
Martin SW, Meek AH, Willerberg P (1987) Veterinary epidemiology, principles and methods. Iowa State University Press, Ames, p 343
McClanahan TR, Weil E, Cortés J, Baird A, Ateweberhan M (2009) Consequences of coral bleaching for sessile organisms. In: Van Oppen M, Lough J (eds) Coral bleaching: patterns, processes, causes and consequences, Springer Ecological Studies. Springer, Berlin, pp 121–138
Miller J, Rogers C, Waara R (2001) Monitoring the coral disease plague type II on coral reefs of St. John, US Virgin Islands. In: Proceedings of the 30th Sientific Meeting of the Association of Marine Laboratories of the Caribbean, Puerto Rico. Rev Biol Trop 51(Suppl 4):47–56
Miller J, Waara R, Muller E, Rogers CS (2006) Coral bleaching and disease combine to cause extensive mortality on reefs in US Virgin Islands. Coral Reefs 25:418
Miller J, Muller E, Rogers CS, Waara R, Atkinson A, Whelan KRT, Patterson M, Witcher B (2009) Coral disease following massive bleaching in 2005 causes 60% decline in coral cover on reefs in the US Virgin Islands. Coral Reefs 28:925–937
Muller EM, Rogers CS, Spitzack AS, van Woesik R (2008) Water temperature influences disease prevalence and severity on Acropora palmata (Lamarck) at Hawksnest Bay, St. John, US Virgin Islands. Coral Reefs 27:191–195
Mydlarz LD, Couch CS, Weil E, Smith GW, Harvell CD (2009) Immune defenses of healthy, bleached and diseased Montastraea faveolata during a natural bleaching event. Dis Aquat Org 87:67–71
Nagelkerken I, Buchan K, Smith GW, Bonair K, Bush P, Garzon-Ferreira J, Botero L, Gayle P, Harvell CD, Heberer C, Kim K, Petrovic C, Pots L, Yoshioka P (2007a) Widespread disease in Caribbean sea fans: I. Spreading and general characteristics. In: Proceedings of 8th international coral reef symposium, vol 1, Panama, 1997, pp 679–682
Nagelkerken I, Buchan K, Smith GW, Bonair K, Bush P, Garzon-Ferreira J, Botero L, Gayle P, Harvell CD, Heberer C, Kim K, Petrovic C, Pots L, Yoshioka P (2007b) Widespread disease in Caribbean sea fans: II. Pattern of infection, and tissue loss. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 160:255–263
Nugues MN, Smith GW, van Hooidonk RJ, Seabra MI, Bak RPM (2004) Algal contact as a trigger for coral disease. Ecol Lett 7:919–923
Ostrander GK, Meyer-Armstrong K, Knobbe ET, Gerace D, Scully EP (2000) Rapid transition in the structure of a coral reef community: the effects of coral bleaching and physical disturbance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97:5294–5302
Page C, Willis B (2006) Distribution, host range and large-scale spatial variability in black band disease prevalence on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Dis Aquat Org 69:41–51
Page CA, Baker DA, Harvell CD, Golbuu Y, Raymundo L, Neale SJ, Rosell KB, Rypien KL, Andras JP, Willis BL (2009) Influence of marine reserves on coral disease prevalence. Dis Aquat Org 87:135–150
Pandolfi JM, Bradbury RH, Sala E, Hughes TP, Bjorndal KA, Cooke RG, McArdle D, McClanahan L, Newman MJH, Paredes G, Warner RR, Jackson JBC (2003) Global trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science 301:955–958
Pantos O, Cooney RP, Le Tissier MDA, Barer MR, O’Donnell AG, Bythell JC (2003) The bacterial ecology of a plague-like disease affecting the Caribbean coral Montastrea annularis. Environ Microbiol 5:370–382
Patterson KL, Porter JW, Ritchie KB, Polson SW, Mueller E, Peters EC, Santavy DL, Smith GW (2002) The etiology of white pox, a lethal disease of the Caribbean elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata. PNAS 99:8725–8730
Peters E (1997) Diseases of coral reef organisms. In: Birkeland C (ed) Life and death of coral reefs. Kluwer, Boston, pp 114–136
Peters EC, Oprandy JJ, Yevich PP (1983) Possible cause of “white band disease” in Caribbean corals. J Invert Pathol 41:394–396
Petes LE, Harvell CD, Peters EC, Webb MAH, Mullen KM (2003) Pathogens compromise reproduction and induce melanization in Caribbean sea fans. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 264:167–171
Porter JW, Meier O (1992) Quantification of loss and change in Floridian reef coral populations. Am Zool 23:625–640
Polson SW, Higgins JL, Woodley CM (2009) PCR-based assay for detection of four coral pathogens. In: Proceedings of 11th International coral reef symposium session, vol 8, Ft. Lauderdale, 2008, pp 247–251
Prada C, Weil E, Yoshioka P (2009) Octocoral bleaching under unusual thermal stress. Coral Reefs. doi:10.1007/s00338-009-0547-z
Raymundo LJ, Harvell CD, Reynolds TL (2003) Porites ulcerative white spot disease: description, prevalence, and host range of a new coral disease affecting Indo-Pacific reefs. Dis Aquat Org 56:95–104
Raymundo LJ, Couch CS, Harvell CD (eds) (2008) Coral disease handbook. Guidelines for assessment, monitoring and managing. GEF-CRTR program. Currie Communications, Australia, 121 pp
Reshef L, Koren O, Loya Y, Zilber-Rosenberg I, Rosenberg E (2006) The coral probiotic hypothesis. Environ Microbiol 8:2068–2073
Richardson LL (1997) Occurrence of the black band disease cyanobacterium on healthy corals of the Florida Keys. Bull Mar Sci 61:485–490
Richardson LL (1998) Coral diseases: what is really known? Trends Ecol Evol 13:438–443
Richardson LL, Aronson RB (2002) Infectious diseases of reef corals. In: Proceedings of 9th international coral reef symposium, vol 2, Bali, 2000, pp 1225–1230
Richardson LL, Goldberg WM, Carlton RG, Halas JC (1998a) Coral disease outbreak in the Florida Keys: plague type II. Rev Biol Trop 46:187–198
Richardson LL, Goldberg WM, Kuta KG, Aronson RB, Smith GW, Ritchie KB, Halas JC, Feingold JS, Miller M (1998b) Florida’s mystery coral killer identified. Nature 392:557–558
Richardson LL, Sekar R, Myers JL, Gantar M, Voss JD, Kaczmarsky L, Remily ER, Boyer GL, Zimba PV (2007) The presence of the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin in black band disease of corals. FEMS Microbiol Lett 272:182–187
Ritchie KB (2006) Regulation of microbial populations by mucus-associated bacteria. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 322:1–14
Ritchie KB, Smith GW (1998) Description of type II white band disease in acroporid corals. Rev Biol Trop 46:199–203
Ritchie KB, Polson SW, Smith GW (2001) Microbial disease causation in marine invertebrates: problems, practices and future prospects. In: Porter JW (ed) The ecology and etiology of newly emerging marine diseases, developments in hydrobiology. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 131–139
Roberts HH, Rouse LJ, Walker ND, Hudson JH (1982) Cold-water stress in Florida bay and northern Bahamas: a product of winter cold-air outbreaks. J Sed Petrol 52(1):0145–0155
Rodriguez-Martinez RE, Benaszak AT, Jordán-Dahlgren E (2001) Necrotic patches affect Acro pora palmata (Scleractinia: Acroporidae) in the Mexican Caribbean. Dis Aquat Org 47:229–234
Rohwer F, Seguritan V, Azam F, Knowlton N (2002) Diversity of coral-associated bacteria. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 243:1–10
Rohwer F, Breitbar M, Jara J, Azam F, Knowlton N (2001) Diversity of bacteria associated with the Caribbean coral Montastraea franksi. Coral Reefs 120:85–91
Rogers C, Patterson K, Porter J (2005) Has white pox been affecting elkhorn coral for over 30 years? Coral Reefs 24:194
Rogers CS, Miller J (2006) Permanent “phase shifts” or reversible declines in coral cover? Lack of recovery of two coral reefs in St. John, USVI. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 306:103–114
Rogers CS, Miller J, Muller EM (2008a) Coral diseases following massive bleaching in 2005 cause 60 percent decline in coral cover and mortality of the threatened species, Acropora palmata, on reefs in the U.S. Virgin Islands. USGS Fact Sheet 2008–3058
Rogers CS, Miller J, Muller EM, Edmunds P, Nemeth RS, Beets J, Friedlander AM, Smith TB, Boulon R, Jeffrey CFG, Menza C, Caldow C, Idrisi N, Kojis B, Monaco ME, Spitzack A, Gladfelter EH, Ogden JC, Hillis-Starr Z, Lundgren I, Schill WB, Kuffner IB, Richardson LL, Devine BE, Voss JD (2008b) Ecology of coral reefs in the US Virgin Islands. In: Riegl BM, Dodge RE (eds) Coral reefs of the USA. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 303–373
Rosenberg E (2004) The bacterial disease hypothesis of coral bleaching. In: Rosenberg E, Loya Y (eds) Coral health and disease. Springer, Berlin, pp 445–461
Rosenberg E, Ben-Haim Y (2002) Microbial diseases of corals and global warming. Environ Microbiol 4:318–326
Rosenberg E, Loya Y (2004) Coral health and disease. Springer, Berlin, p 484
Rosenberg E, Kushamaro A (2010) Microbial diseases of corals: pathology and ecology. In: Dubinsky S, Stambler N (eds) Corals and reefs: their life and death. Springer
Rosenberg E, Koren O, Reshef L, Efrony R, Zilber-Rosenberg I (2007) The role of microorganisms in coral health, disease and evolution. Nat Rev Microbiol 5:355–362
Rützler K, Santavy DL (1983) The black band disease of Atlantic reef corals. I. Description of the cyanophyte pathogen. PSZNI Mar Ecol 4:301–319
Rützler K, Santavy DL, Antonius A (1983) The black band disease of Atlantic reef corals III. Distribution, ecology and development. PSZNI Mar Ecol 4:329–335
Santavy DL, Peters EC (1997) Microbial pests: coral disease in the Western Atlantic. In: Proceedings of 8th international coral reef symposium, vol 1, Panama, 1997, pp 607–612
Santavy DL, Peters EC, Quirolo C, Porter JW, Bianchi CN (1999) Yellow-blotch disease outbreak on reefs of the San Blas islands, Panamá. Coral Reefs 18:97
Sekar R, Kaczmarsky LT, Richardson LL (2008) Microbial community composition of black band disease on the coral host Siderastrea siderea from three regions of the wider Caribbean. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 362:85–98
Selig ER, Harvell CD, Bruno JF, Willis BL, Page CA et al (2006) Analyzing the relationship between ocean temperature anomalies and coral disease outbreaks at broad spatial scales. In: Phinney J, Hoegh-Guldberg O, Kleypas J, Skirving W, Strong A (eds) Coral reefs and climate change: science and management. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp 111–128
Smith GW, Ives ID, Nagelkerken IA, Ritchie KB (1996) Aspergillosis associated with Caribbean sea fan mortalities. Nature 382:487
Smith GW, Weil E (2004) Aspergillosis of gorgonians. In: Rosenberg E, Loya Y (eds) Coral health and disease. Springer, New York, pp 279–286
Spalding DL, Greenfeld A (1997) New estimates of global and regional coral reef areas. Coral Reefs 16:225–230
Solano OD, Navas G, Moreno-Forero SK (1993) Blanqueamiento coralino de 1990 en el Parque Nacional Natural Corales del Rosario (Caribe colombiano). Anales del Instituto de Investigación del Mar, Punta de Betin 22:97–111
Stedman TL (1976) Stedman’s medical dictionary. Williams and Wilkin Company, Baltimore, 1678 pp. http://www.stedmans.com
Sunagawa S, DeSantis TZ, Piceno YM, Brodie EL, DeSalvo MK, Voolstra CR, Weil E, Andersen GL, Medina M (2009) Bacterial diversity and white plague disease-associated community changes in the Caribbean coral Montastraea faveolata assessed by 16S rRNA microarray analysis and clone library sequencing. ISME J 3:1–10
Sussman M, Loya Y, Fine M, Rosenberg E (2003) The marine fireworm Hermodice carunculata is a winter reservoir and spring-summer vector for the coral-bleaching pathogen Vibrio shiloi. Environ Microbiol 5(4):250–255
Sussman M, Bourne D, Willis B (2006) A single cyanobacterial ribotype is associated with both black and red bands on diseased coral from Palau. Dis Aquat Org 69:111–118
Sutherland KP, Porter JW, Torres C (2004) Disease and immunity in Caribbean and Indo-Pacific zooxanthellate corals. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 266:273–302
Szmant AM, Gassman NJ (1990) The effects of prolonged “bleaching” on the tissue biomass and reproduction of the reef coral Montastraea annularis. Coral Reefs 8:217–224
Taylor D (1983) The black band disease of Atlantic reef corals. II. Isolation, cultivation, and growth of Phormidium corallyticum. PSZNI Mar Ecol 4:320–328
Thurber RV, Willner-Hall D, Rodriguez-Mueller B, Desnues C, Edwards RA, Angly F, Dinsdale D, Kelly L, Rohwer F (2009) Metagenomic analysis of stressed coral holobionts. Environ Microbiol 11:2148–2163
Toledo-Hernandez C, Zuluaga-Montero A, Bones-Gonzalez A, Rodriguez JA, Sabat AM, Bayman P (2008) Fungi in healthy and diseased sea fans (Gorgonia ventalina): is Aspergillus sydowii always the pathogen? Coral Reefs 27:707–714
Van Oppen M, Lough J (2009) Coral bleaching: patterns, processes, causes and consequences, ecological studies. Springer, Berlin, 350 pp
Vollmer SV, Kline DI (2008) Natural disease resistance in threatened staghorn corals. PLoS ONE 11:33718
Voss JD, Mills DK, Myers JL, Remily ER, Richardson LL (2007) Black band disease microbial community variation on corals in three regions of the wider Caribbean. Microb Ecol 54:730–739
Weil E (2001) Caribbean coral reef diseases. Status and research needs. In: McManus J (ed) Priorities for Caribbean coral reef research. National Center for Caribbean Coral Reef Research. RSMAS, University of Miami, coral gables, p 10
Weil E (2002) Coral disease epizootiology: status and research needs. Coral health and disease: developing a national research plan. Coral Health and Disease Consortium, Charleston, South Carolina, 14 pp
Weil E (2004) Coral reef diseases in the wider Caribbean. In: Rosenberg E, Loya Y (eds) Coral health and disease. Springer, New York, pp 35–68
Weil E (2008) Temporal dynamics of the ongoing Caribbean yellow band epizootic event: potential link to increasing water temperatures. In: 11th international coral reef symposium (Abstract), Ft. Lauderdale, p 57
Weil E, Ruiz H (2003) Tissue mortality and recovery in Acropora palmata (Scleractinia, Acroporidae) after a patchy necrosis outbreak in southwest Puerto Rico. In: 31th scientific meeting of the association of marine laboratories of the Caribbean (Abstract), Port of Spain, Trinidad, p 22
Weil E, Jordán-Dahlgren E (2005) Status of coral reef diseases in Zanzibar and Kenya, western Indian ocean. Progress report, GEF-WB Coral Reef Targeted Research and Capacity Building-Coral Disease Working Group, 16 pp
Weil E, Hooten AJ (2008) Underwater cards for assessing coral health on Caribbean reefs. GEF-CRTR Program, Center for Marine Sciences, University of Queensland, Bruisbane, 24 pp
Weil E, Croquer A (2009) Spatial variability in distribution and prevalence of Caribbean coral and octocoral diseases I: community level analysis. Dis Aquat Org 83:195–208
Weil E, Urreiztieta I, Garzón-Ferreira J (2002) Geographic variability in the incidence of coral and octocoral diseases in the wider Caribbean. In: Proceedings of 9th international coral reef symposium, vol 2, Bali, pp 1231–1238
Weil E, Torres JL, Ashton M (2005) Population characteristics of the black sea urchin Diadema antillarum (Philippi) in La Parguera, Puerto Rico, 17 years after the mass mortality event. Rev Biol Trop 53:219–231
Weil E, Smith GW, Gil-Agudelo DL (2006) Status and progress in coral reef disease research. Dis Aquat Org 69:1–7
Weil E, Croquer A, Urreiztieta I (2009a) Caribbean Yellow Band Disease compromises the reproductive output of the reef-building coral Montastraea faveolata (Anthozoa, Scleractinia). Dis Aquat Org 87:45–55
Weil E, Croquer A, Urreiztieta I (2010) Temporal variability and consequences of coral diseases and bleaching in La Parguera, Puerto Rico from 2003–2007. Carib J Sci (in press)
Weil E, Smith GW, Ritchie KB, Croquer A (2009b) Inoculation of Vibrio spp. onto Montastraea faveolata fragments to determine potential pathogenicity. In: Proceedings of 11th international coral reef symposium session, vol 7, Ft. Lauderdale, pp 202–205
Weil E, Hernandez-Delgado EA, Bruckner AW, Ortiz A, Nemeth M, Ruiz H (2003) Distribution and status of Acroporid (scleractinia) populations in Puerto Rico. In: Bruckner AW (ed) Proceedings of the Caribbean Acropora workshop: potential application of the US Endangered Species Act (ESA) as a conservation strategy. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS-OPR-24, Silver Spring, 199 pp
Weil E, Jordan-Dahlgren E, Bruckner AW, Raymundo LJ (2008) Assessment and monitoring protocols of coral reef diseases. In: Raymundo L, Couch CS, Harvell D (eds) Coral disease handbook: guidelines for assessment, monitoring and management. GEF-CRTR-Currie Communications, Australia, pp 48–64
Wilkinson C (2006) Status of coral reefs of the world: summary of threats and remedial action. In: Coté IM, Reynolds JM (eds) Coral reef conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 3–39
Wilkinson C, Souter D (2008) Status of Caribbean coral reefs after bleaching and hurricanes in 2005. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, and Reef and Rainforest Research Centre, Townsville, 152 p
Williams DE, Miller MW (2005) Coral disease outbreak: patterns, prevalence and transmission in Acropora cervicornis. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 301:119–128
Willis BL, Page CA, Dinsdale EA (2004) Coral disease on the Great Barrier Reef. In: Rosenberg E, Loya Y (eds) Coral health and disease. Springer, Berlin, pp 69–104
Wobeser GA (1994) Investigation of management of diseases in wild animals. Plenum, New York, p 265
Wobeser GA (2006) Essentials of disease in wild animals. Blackwell, Oxford, p 243
Woodley CM, Bruckner AW, McLenon AL, Higgins JL, Galloway SG, Nicholson JH (2008) Field manual for investigating coral disease outbreaks. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NOS NCCOS 80 and CRCP 6, 85 pp
Work TM, Aeby GS (2006) Systematically describing gross lesions in corals. Dis Aquat Org 70:155–160
Work TM, Richardson LL, Reynolds TL, Willis BL (2008a) Biomedical and veterinary science can increase our understanding of coral disease. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 362:63–70
Work TM, Woodley C, Raymundo L (2008b) Confirming field assessments and measuring disease impacts. In: Raymundo L, Couch SS, Harvell D (eds) Coral disease handbook: guidelines for assessment, monitoring and management. GEF-CRTR – Currie Communication, Australia, pp 48–64
Work TM, Aeby GS, Stanton FG et al (2008c) Overgrowth of fungi (endolithic hypermycosis) associated with multifocal to diffuse distinct dark discoloration of corals in the Indo-Pacific. Coral Reefs 27:663
Zimmer B, Duncan L, Aronson RB, Deslarzes KJP, Deis D, Robbart M, Precht WF, Kaufman L, Shank B, Weil E, Field J, Evans DJ, Clift L (2009) Long-term monitoring at the East and West Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, 2004–2008. Volume I: Technical report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, Louisiana. OCS Study MMS 2009, 233 pp
Acknowledgments
We thank Zvy and Maya Dubinsky for their kind invitation to be part of this book. Thierry Work, Kim Ritchie, Ken Sulak, Noga Stambler, and an anonymous reviewer made important comments and suggestions that helped improve this contribution. Some results presented here come from research funded by the GEF-World Bank CRTR program through the disease working group and NOAA-CRES Grant (NA170P2919) to E. Weil.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Weil, E., Rogers, C.S. (2011). Coral Reef Diseases in the Atlantic-Caribbean. In: Dubinsky, Z., Stambler, N. (eds) Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0114-4_27
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0114-4_27
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-0113-7
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-0114-4
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)