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Child Soldiers at the International Criminal Court

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The War Crime of Child Soldier Recruitment

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Abstract

The chapter begins with a brief examination of the relationship between the International Criminal Court and the crime of child soldier recruitment. What were the reasons for the first trial—Prosecutor v. Thomas Dyilo Lubanga—to focus narrowly on just one crime, instead of charges such as genocide or more established war crimes? This chapter will demonstrate that the decision to focus on child recruitment was motivated by the erroneous belief by the Office of the Prosecutor that it would be a simple and straightforward trial. The OTP had evidence that it believed would result in a ‘slam-dunk’, but its use of intermediaries to procure witnesses and its stance on discovery resulted in a much-delayed and obstacle-filled three-year trial. The progress of the Lubanga trial and the resulting Trial Chamber judgment are examined in details, and the issue of prosecuting child soldiers at the ICC is also analysed.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The Office of the Prosecutor placed great significance on several videos which depicted young soldiers, identified as Lubanga’s bodyguards, riding in the back of a truck, and well as footage of Lubanga himself addressing large crowds, including children, on the importance of the UPC’s work. In its closing statement, the prosecution described one such video as ‘a taped confession of Mr. Thomas Lubanga’. In the video (exhibit DRC-OTP-0120-0293) Lubanga is dressed in army fatigues, addressing young recruits, telling them ‘it is the second time I come here’ and ‘when you were still civilians, you saw us on television’. ‘The work you know, being enlisted in the army… using weapons’, he says, ‘is blessed’. In another video (exhibit DRC-OTP-1001-0010), an interview with an unnamed British journalist, Lubanga blames the Ugandan forces for ‘arming some youngsters’ and complains that ‘now people are laying the blame at the UPC's door, saying that it's the UPC that has got child soldiers [sic]’. Later in the video the journalist sees a small boy in military fatigue trousers with a rifle on his shoulder and tells the camera: ‘Officially, this militia group, the UPC, don't employ child soldiers. This little chap can't be more than 10 or 12’.

  2. 2.

    UN Doc. A/CONF.183/9 (1998) Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Articles 121, 122, 123 [Hereafter ‘Rome Statute’].

  3. 3.

    Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (“The AFRC Case”) (Judgment) SCSL-04-16-T (20 July 2007) [Hereafter ‘AFRC Trial Judgment’] [732].

  4. 4.

    The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Décision sur la confirmation des charges) ICC-01/04-01106 (29 January 2007) [315–316]. The French version of the decision is the original and authoritative version. [Hereafter ‘Lubanga Confirmation of Charges’].

  5. 5.

    Ibid.

  6. 6.

    Case concerning armed activities on the territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda (Judgment) General List No. 116 [2005] ICJ [210] [Hereafter ‘ICJ Case—Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda’].

  7. 7.

    Ibid.

  8. 8.

    The Prosecutor v Joseph Kony, Vincent Otti, Okot Odhiambo and Dominic Ongwen (Warrant of Arrests issued on 8th July 2005) ICC-02/04-01/05-53 (8 July 2005).

  9. 9.

    Freeland 2008, p. 51.

  10. 10.

    Prosecutor v Joseph Kony, Vincent Otti, Okot Odhiambo and Dominic Ongwen (Warrant of Arrest for Dominic Ongwen) ICC-02/04-01/05-57 (8 July 2005).

  11. 11.

    Hannan L (2007) Uganda’s Boy Soldier Turned Rebel Chief is a Victim, not a Criminal, says his Family. The Independent, London.

  12. 12.

    Justice and Reconciliation Project Northern Uganda/Liu Institute for Global Issues (2008), Complicating victims and perpetrators in Uganda: On Dominic Ongwen. Field Note 7. http://justiceandreconciliation.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/07/JRP_FN7_Dominic-Ongwen.pdf Accessed 28 March 2013.

  13. 13.

    Freeland 2008, p. 51.

  14. 14.

    Rome Statute (n 2 above) Article 121:  1. After the expiry of seven years from the entry into force of this Statute, any State Party may propose amendments thereto. The text of any proposed amendment shall be submitted to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall promptly circulate it to all States Parties. 2. No sooner than three months from the date of notification, the Assembly of States Parties, at its next meeting, shall, by a majority of those present and voting, decide whether to take up the proposal. The Assembly may deal with the proposal directly or convene a Review Conference if the issue involved so warrants.

  15. 15.

    Ibid Article 33(1) provides for the following exceptions: (a) The person was under a legal obligation to obey orders of the Government or the superior in question; (b) The person did not know that the order was unlawful; and (c) The order was not manifestly unlawful.

  16. 16.

    Nzongola-Ntalaja 2002, p. 171.

  17. 17.

    Ibid, pp. 88, 194.

  18. 18.

    Roberto Garreton, the former Special Rapporteur for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, testified on the history of the conflict in the DRC. Interestingly, he stated that Rwanda and Uganda had very different motivations for participating in conflict in the DRC. Rwandan president Paul Kagame was interested in ‘achieving Berlin II’, a complete re-writing of all African borders and was thus motivated to ‘conquer Kivu to provide lands for [the] population’. Conversely, Uganda was seeking ‘access to the riches of the Congo… Diamonds, gold, timbers, coltan’. See Trial Transcript T-193 (17 June 2009) page 88, line 23 to page 89, line 22.

  19. 19.

    Kisangani and Scott 2010, pp. 239–241.

  20. 20.

    United Nations (2004) Special report on the events in Ituri, January 2002-December 2003. S/2004/573 (16 July 2004) [7–19].

  21. 21.

    Masire 2001.

  22. 22.

    UNSC Res 1376 (9 November 2001) UN Doc S/RES/1376.

  23. 23.

    Rotberg 2003, p. 52.

  24. 24.

    A. Nossiter, Congo President Kabila Denies Reports of Election Fraud. New York Times (12 December 2011).

  25. 25.

    Graff 2004, p. 23.

  26. 26.

    Human Rights Watch (2003) Covered in Blood: Ethnically Targeted Violence in Northern DRC. New York, p. 15.

  27. 27.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Dyilo Lubanga (Warrant of Arrest) ICC-01/04-01/06-2 (10 February 2006) [3] [Hereafter ‘Lubanga Arrest Warrant’].

  28. 28.

    Human Rights Watch (n 26 above) p. 27.

  29. 29.

    Ibid p. 46.

  30. 30.

    Ibid p. 46. ‘Interview with UPC President Thomas Lubanga in Bunia on 14 February 2003’.

  31. 31.

    Ibid p. 47.

  32. 32.

    Ibid p. 15.

  33. 33.

    Schiff 2008, p. 220.

  34. 34.

    Shawki and Cox 2009, pp. 69–70.

  35. 35.

    ICC Press Release, ‘Prosecutor receives referral of the situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo’ (19 April 2004) ICC-OTP-20040419-50.

  36. 36.

    Lubanga Arrest Warrant (n 27 above).

  37. 37.

    X. Rice, Sudanese president tells International Criminal Court to ‘eat' arrest warrant. The Guardian (London 4 March 2009); M. Osman, Al-Bashir Visits Eritrea, Defies ICC Warrant. Huffington Post (New York, 23 March 2009); D. Charter, World Court under threat as President al-Bashir of Sudan defies warrant. The Times (London, 2 April 2009); BBC News, Sudan's President Bashir defies arrest warrant in Chad. BBC News (London, 21 July 2010) http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-10718399 Accessed 19 March 2013; Reuters, ICC urges UN action on Bashir visit to Djibouti (Amsterdam, 12 May 2011). http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCATRE74B5NG20110512 Accessed 19 March 2013; T. Branigan, China welcomes Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir. The Guardian (London, 16 June 2011); CNN (2012) Sudan's wanted president visits Egypt (16 September 2012). http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/16/world/africa/egypt-sudan Accessed 19 March 2013; T. McCormick, The world's most mobile accused war criminal. Foreign Policy (17 September 2012) http://blog.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2012/09/17/the_worlds_most_mobile_war_criminal. Accessed 19 March 2013.

  38. 38.

    The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Case Information Sheet, Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo) ICC-PIDS-CIS-DRC-01-003/09_Eng (16 September 2009).

  39. 39.

    IRIN (2011) Jury still out on ICC trials in DRC. Nairobi, 19 January 2011. http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=91672 Accessed 16 March 2013.

  40. 40.

    Bowman 2007, p. 420.

  41. 41.

    Burke-White 2005, p. 559.

  42. 42.

    Prosecutor v Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta ICC-01/09-02/11; Prosecutor v William Samoei Ruto and Joshua Arap Sang ICC-01/09-01/11.

  43. 43.

    Rome Statute (n 2 above) Article 17.

  44. 44.

    Bowman (n 40 above) p. 430.

  45. 45.

    Stromseth 2007, p. 257.

  46. 46.

    Concannon 2000, p. 225.

  47. 47.

    Human Rights Watch (n 26 above) p. 1.

  48. 48.

    A. Stroehlein, In Congo, 1,000 die per day: Why isn't it a media story? Christian Science Monitor (Brussels, 14 June 2005).

  49. 49.

    Schabas 2008, p. 741.

  50. 50.

    Ibid 744.

  51. 51.

    Stearns 2011.

  52. 52.

    J. Stewart, Lubanga Decision Roundtable: Lubanga in Context. Opinio Juris 18 March 2012. http://opiniojuris.org/2012/03/18/lubanga-decision-roundtable-lubanga-in-context/ Accessed 19 March 2013.

  53. 53.

    Statement by ICC Office of the Prosecutor, ‘Statement by Luis Moreno-Ocampo to the Press Conference in relation with the surrender to the Court of Mr. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo’ (18 March 2006).

  54. 54.

    ICC Newsletter November 2006 #10 (Special Issue), 2. http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/B75835FA-167E−4E9D-BC37-06239D316DD4/146439/ICCNL10200611_En1.pdf Accessed 19 March 2013.

  55. 55.

    R. Irwin, 2011, Interview with Fatou Bensouda, ICC Deputy Prosecutor. The Lubanga Trial, 31 July 2009. http://www.lubangatrial.org/2009/07/31/interview-with-fatou-bensouda-icc-deputy-prosecutor/ Accessed 24 March 2013.

  56. 56.

    Aksar 2002, p. 85.

  57. 57.

    K. Glassborow, ICC Prosecutors’ Performance Reviewed. Institute for War and Peace Reporting Tribunal Update 471, 6 October 2006. http://iwpr.net/report-news/icc-prosecutors%E2%80%99-performance-reviewed Accessed 19 March 2013; P. Clark, In the Shadow of the Volcano: Democracy and Justice in Congo (Dissent Magazine 2007) 29, 34. http://dissentmagazine.org/article/?article=724Accessed 20 March 2013; Human Rights Watch (2006) Joint letter to the Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court from Avocats Sans Frontières, Center for Justice and Reconciliation, Coalition Nationale pour la Cour Pénale Internationale—RCD, Fédération Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l'Homme, Human Rights Watch, International Center for Transitional Justice, Redress and Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice. New York, 31 July 2006. http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2006/07/31/dr-congo-icc-charges-raise-concern Accessed 21 March 2013.

  58. 58.

    Flint and De Waal 2009.

  59. 59.

    Clark 2008, p. 218.

  60. 60.

    Flint and De Waal 2009.

  61. 61.

    Gallagher 2011, p. 135.

  62. 62.

    REDRESS, Victims, Perpetrators or Heroes? Child Soldiers before the International Criminal Court, September 2006. http://www.redress.org/downloads/publications/childsoldiers.pdf Accessed 19 March 2013.

  63. 63.

    Letter from Brigid Inder, Executive Director, Women’s Initiative for Gender Justice to Luis Moreno Ocampo, Prosecutor, International Criminal Court (August 2006) http://www.iccwomen.org/news/docs/Prosecutor_Letter_August_2006_Redacted.pdf Accessed 19 March 2013.

  64. 64.

    L. Gambone, Failure to Charge: The ICC, Lubanga & Sexual Violence Crimes in the DRC. Foreign Policy Association (22 July 2009) http://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2009/07/22/failure-to-charge-the-icc-lubanga-sexual-violence-crimes-in-the-drc/ Accessed 21 March 2013.

  65. 65.

    Ibid. See also: Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Transcript of Witness 213) ICC-01/04-01/06-T-133 (23 February 2009) page 4, lines 17–23 [Hereafter ‘Lubanga Trial Transcript’]; Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness 38) T-114 (3 February 2009) page 22, lines 16–19; (Witness 11) T-138 (27 February 2009), page 74, lines 2–11; (Witness 10) T-145 (6 March 2009), page 30, line 18 to page 31, line 9; (Witness 31) T-202 (2 July 2009) page 10, lines 16–17; (Kristine Peduto) T-207 (9 July 2009) page 13, lines 16–17.

  66. 66.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Prosecution’s Opening Statement) T-107 (26 January 2009) page 4, lines 19–21.

  67. 67.

    Flint and De Waal 2009.

  68. 68.

    Irwin and Wakabi, Lubanga defence warn new charges threaten trial. Institute for War and Peace Reporting 29 June 2009. http://iwpr.net/report-news/lubanga-defence-warn-new-charges-threaten-trial Accessed 21 March 2013.

  69. 69.

    The Prosecutor v Jean-Paul Akayesu (Indictment (Amended)) ICTR-96-4-I (6 June 1997) [12].

  70. 70.

    For an assessment of the legality of the ability of Trial Chamber judges to re-characterise the facts described in the charges on the basis of Regulation 55 of the ICC’s Rules of Procedure and Evidence see: Jacobs 2012.

  71. 71.

    The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Minority Opinion on the Decision Giving Notice to the Parties and Participants that the Legal Characterisation of Facts may be subject to Change in Accordance with Regulation 55(2) of the Regulations of the Court) ICC-01/04-01/06, (17 July 2009) [94].

  72. 72.

    The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Judgment on the appeals of Mr Lubanga Dyilo and the Prosecutor against the Decision of Trial Chamber I of 14 July 2009 entitled "Decision giving notice to the parties and participants that the legal characterisation of the facts may be subject to change in accordance with Regulation 55(2) of the Regulations of the Court") ICC-01/04-01/06 (7 December 2009).

  73. 73.

    REDRESS (n 62 above) p. 18.

  74. 74.

    Happold 2008, p. 25.

  75. 75.

    Clark 2008.

  76. 76.

    Ochoa 2008, p. 56.

  77. 77.

    Clark 2008, p. 210.

  78. 78.

    Ibid.

  79. 79.

    Ochoa 2008, p. 39.

  80. 80.

    Article 8(2)(b)(xxvi) and Article 8(2)(e)(vii) [Emphasis added].

  81. 81.

    Happold 2007, p. 718.

  82. 82.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [220–233].

  83. 83.

    Rome Statute (n 2 above) Article 8(2)(e)(vii).

  84. 84.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [237].

  85. 85.

    Ibid [200] The Pre-Trial Chamber drew specific attention to the closing statement of the Representative of Victim a/0105/06, who asserted that the involvement of Uganda and Rwanda in Ituri was ‘a matter of common knowledge’.

  86. 86.

    Prosecutor v Dusko Tadic (Appeal Judgment) IT-94-1-A (15 July 1999) [84].

  87. 87.

    International Committee of the Red Cross, ‘Commentary to the IV Geneva Convention relative to the treatment of prisoners of war’, ICRC 26.

  88. 88.

    ICJ Case—Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda (n 6 above) [172].

  89. 89.

    Ibid [175].

  90. 90.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [227].

  91. 91.

    Ibid [224].

  92. 92.

    The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Application for Leave to Appeal Pre-Trial Chamber I's 29 January 2007 "Décision sur la confirmation des charges") ICC-01/04-01/06-80 (5 February 2007) [9].

  93. 93.

    The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Defence Appeal Against the Pre-Trial Chamber’s ‘Décision sur la confirmation des charges’ of 29 January 2007) ICC-01/04-01/06-797 (30 January 2007) [14].

  94. 94.

    Happold 2008, p. 718.

  95. 95.

    Willmott 2004, p. 196.

  96. 96.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [277].

  97. 97.

    Ibid [281].

  98. 98.

    Ibid [272].

  99. 99.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, Article 1(4).

  100. 100.

    Ibid Commentary, 113.

  101. 101.

    Pilloud and others 1987, p. 85.

  102. 102.

    Happold 2008, p. 722.

  103. 103.

    Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Sick and Wounded in Armed Forces in the Field (adopted on 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 31 (First Geneva Convention); Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (adopted on 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950) 75 UNTS 135 (Third Geneva Convention).

  104. 104.

    Bekou 2008, p. 354.

  105. 105.

    ‘Conscripting or enlisting children under the age of fifteen years into the national armed forces or using them to participate actively in hostilities’ [Emphasis added].

  106. 106.

    Bekou 2008, p. 354.

  107. 107.

    Ibid [246].

  108. 108.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 3 above) [735].

  109. 109.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 8 June 1977, Commentary, 4557. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/COM/475-760003?OpenDocument Accessed 9 April 2013.

  110. 110.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript T-223 (7 January 2010) page 11, lines 8–18.

  111. 111.

    ‘Amicus curiae brief of the United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict submitted to the ICC in application of Rule 103 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, pursuant to the Decision Inviting Observations from the Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the United Nations for Children and Armed Conflict, of Trial Chamber I of the International Criminal Court’ ICC-01/04-01/06-1229-AnxA (18 March 2008) [13] [hereinafter ‘Amicus curiae of the UN Special Representative’].

  112. 112.

    Ibid [10].

  113. 113.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [247].

  114. 114.

    Cryer et al. 2010, p. 422.

  115. 115.

    Singer 2006, p. 61.

  116. 116.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [252].

  117. 117.

    Prosecutor v Moinina Fofana and Allieu Kondewa (“The CDF Case”) (Judgment) SCSL-04-14-T (2 August 2007) [192] [Hereafter ‘CDF Trial Judgment’].

  118. 118.

    Ibid.

  119. 119.

    See pp. 104, 133, 184, 220 and 224.

  120. 120.

    ChildrenArmedConflict, ‘Security Council adopts resolution 1998 on attacks on schools and hospitals unanimously. #childsoldiers’; ‘SRSG Coomaraswamy: During my visits to conflict areas, I have seen schools completely destroyed, bombed or burnt to the ground #childsoldiers’; Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon: ‘The United Nations is fully committed to protecting children in armed conflict #childsoldiers’ (Twitter @childreninwar, 12 July 2011); ‘Children in the Iridimi refugee camp #childsoldiers http://twitpic.com/5eep9j’ (Twitter @childreninwar, 20 June 2011); ‘5 civilians including 2 children died in a suicide bombing in eastern Afghanistan on Monday: http://goo.gl/KmYWj#childsoldiers#zerounder18’ (Twitter @childreninwar, 9 May 2011); ‘SRSG Zerrougui strongly condemns the targeted shooting of Pakistani schoolgirls by the Taliban: http://bit.ly/SKi9Po#childsoldiers @UN’ (Twitter @childreninwar, 9 October 2012); ‘SRSG Zerrougui concerned about possible child casualties in Afghanistan airstrike http://bit.ly/RycyYW#childsoldiers#UN#Afghanistan’ (Twitter @childreninwar, 16 October 2012); ‘SRSG Zerrougui condemns the killing of Syrian children in Government airstrikes http://bit.ly/XzDSdx#Syria#UN #childsoldiers’ (Twitter @childreninwar, 19 October 2012).

  121. 121.

    AFRC Trial Judgment (n 3 above) [737].

  122. 122.

    Draft Statute for the International Criminal Court, Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (14 April 1998) UN Doc. A/CONF.183/2/Add.1 21: ‘The words “using” and “participate” have been adopted in order to cover both direct participation in combat and also active participation in military activities linked to combat such as scouting, spying, sabotage and the use of children as decoys, couriers or at military checkpoints. It would not cover activities clearly unrelated to the hostilities such as food deliveries to an airbase or the use of domestic staff in an officer’s married accommodation. However, use of children in a direct support function such as acting as bearers to take supplies to the front line, or activities at the front line itself, would be included in the terminology.’

  123. 123.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [261–262].

  124. 124.

    Ibid [262].

  125. 125.

    Ibid [263].

  126. 126.

    Ibid.

  127. 127.

    Happold 2008, p. 721.

  128. 128.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [265].

  129. 129.

    Ibid.

  130. 130.

    Ibid [266].

  131. 131.

    Amicus curiae of the UN Special Representative (n 111) [20–21].

  132. 132.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4) [261]; AFRC Trial Judgment (n 3) [736–737]; CDF Trial Judgment (n 117 above) [193].

  133. 133.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4) [262]; CDF Trial Judgment (n 117 above) [193].

  134. 134.

    Rome Statute (n 2 above) Article 30.

  135. 135.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [359].

  136. 136.

    Ibid [404].

  137. 137.

    Ibid [351]; Badar 2008, p. 474.

  138. 138.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [352].

  139. 139.

    CDF Trial Judgment (n 117 above) [959–967].

  140. 140.

    Clark 2008, p. 221.

  141. 141.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [351–352].

  142. 142.

    Werle 2005, p. 104.

  143. 143.

    Weigend 2008, p. 485.

  144. 144.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [365].

  145. 145.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Trial Judgment) ICC-01/04-01/06-2842 (14 March 2012) [1015] [Hereafter ‘Lubanga Trial Judgment’].

  146. 146.

    Cassese 1999, pp. 153–154.

  147. 147.

    Badar 2008, p. 494.

  148. 148.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [377(ii)].

  149. 149.

    Schabas 2007, p. 230.

  150. 150.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [296].

  151. 151.

    Ibid [304].

  152. 152.

    Ibid [302].

  153. 153.

    Rome Statute (n 2 above) Article 32(2).

  154. 154.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [312–314].

  155. 155.

    The AFRC Trial Judgment (n 3 above) [732].

  156. 156.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [315–316].

  157. 157.

    Weigend 2008, p. 476.

  158. 158.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [308].

  159. 159.

    Ibid.

  160. 160.

    Ibid [110].

  161. 161.

    Weigend 2008, p. 476.

  162. 162.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Defence’s Closing Statement) T-357 (26 August 2011) page 25, line 11 to page 26, line 2.

  163. 163.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [326].

  164. 164.

    Ibid [343–346].

  165. 165.

    Ibid [342].

  166. 166.

    Ibid [330]. This theory has its origins in the German scholarship of Claude Roxin; for discussions in English see: Fletcher 2000, pp. 655–659; Osiel 2005, pp. 1751–1862.

  167. 167.

    Ibid [337 (i)].

  168. 168.

    Ibid [377 (ii)].

  169. 169.

    Ibid [383 (ii)].

  170. 170.

    Sacouto and Cleary 2007, p. 837.

  171. 171.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [341].

  172. 172.

    Ochoa 2008, p. 51.

  173. 173.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [351].

  174. 174.

    Ibid [118–124].

  175. 175.

    Ohlin 2011, p. 724.

  176. 176.

    Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui (Decision on the confirmation of charges) ICC-01/04-01/07-716 (26 September 2008) [171].

  177. 177.

    Tadić Appeals Judgment (n 86 above) [190] ‘[W]here several persons having a common purpose embark on criminal activity that is then carried out either jointly or by some members of this plurality of persons. Whoever contributes to the commission of crimes by the group of persons or some members of the group, in execution of a common criminal purpose, may be held to be criminally liable, subject to certain conditions…’.

  178. 178.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Document Containing the Charges) ICC-01/04-01/06-356 (28 August 2006) [20].

  179. 179.

    Badar 2008, p. 510.

  180. 180.

    Ohlin 2011, p. 721.

  181. 181.

    Rome Statute (n 2 above) Article 25(3)(a).

  182. 182.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [335–341].

  183. 183.

    Weigend 2008, p. 478.

  184. 184.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [321].

  185. 185.

    Ibid [334].

  186. 186.

    Tadić Appeals Chamber (n 86 above) [191].

  187. 187.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [383 (ii)].

  188. 188.

    Weigend 2008, p. 487.

  189. 189.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [406].

  190. 190.

    Ibid [383], [398], [399].

  191. 191.

    Ibid [404 i].

  192. 192.

    Ibid [404 ii].

  193. 193.

    The ICTY’s first trial—Prosecutor v Duško Tadić began after 376 pre-trial days. At the ICTR Jean-Paul Akayesu made his initial appearance on 30 May 1996 and the trial began on 9 January 1997, 224 days later.

  194. 194.

    ICC Press Release ‘The Trial in the Case of Mr. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo Will Commence on 31 March 2008’ (12 November 2007); ICC Press Release ‘The trial in the case of Mr. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo will commence on 23 June 2008’ (13 March 2008); ICC Press Release ‘The trial in the case of Mr. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo will not start on 23 June 2008’ (11 June 2008); ICC Press Release ‘Trial Chamber imposes a stay on the proceedings of the case against Thomas Lubanga Dyilo’ (16 June 2008); ICC Press Release ‘Trial Chamber I ordered the release of Thomas Lubanga Dyilo—Implementation of the decision is pending’ (2 July 2008); ICC Press Release ‘Trial Chamber I maintains stay of proceedings in the Thomas Lubanga Dyilo case’ (4 September 2009); ICC Press Release ‘Stay of proceedings in the Lubanga case is lifted—trial provisionally scheduled for 26 January 2009’ (18 November 2008); ICC Press Release ‘Confirmation of the beginning of the Lubanga Dyilo trial, 26 January 2009’ (13 January 2009).

  195. 195.

    For a discussion of the case’s early development see: Villanueva Sainz-Pardo 2008, p. 555 and Verrijn Stuart 2008, p. 409.

  196. 196.

    No Peace Without Justice and UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre (2002) International Criminal Justice and Children, p. 87.

  197. 197.

    R. Irwin, Lubanga Trial, Week 3: Child Soldier Tells of Killing. The Lubanga Trial, 13 February 2009. http://www.lubangatrial.org/2009/02/13/lubanga-trial-week-3-child-soldier-tells-of-killing Accessed 22 March 2013.

  198. 198.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness 298) T-110 (28 January 2009) page 28, lines 13–15; page 29, lines 1–12; page 32, line 16 to page 33, line 1.

  199. 199.

    Ibid page 35, line 21 to page 36, line 14.

  200. 200.

    Ibid page 36, lines 15–21.

  201. 201.

    Ibid page 40, lines 10–12.

  202. 202.

    Ibid page 40, line 25 to page 41, line 3.

  203. 203.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript T-111 (29 January 2009) page 5, lines 1–7.

  204. 204.

    Michael C (2009) Day 4 of the Lubanga Trial: First Witness Reverses His Testimony. The Hub, 29 January 2009. http://hub.witness.org/ICC-Lubanga-4 Accessed 21 March 2013.

  205. 205.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript T-111 (29 January 2009) page 9, line 5.

  206. 206.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript T-123 (10 February 2009) page 3, lines 6–11.

  207. 207.

    ECOSOC (47th plenary meeting) ‘UN Guidelines on Justice for Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime’ Resolution 2004/27 (New York, 21 July 2004) 21(b).

  208. 208.

    Ibid 32(b).

  209. 209.

    Irwin (n 197 above).

  210. 210.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript T-123 (10 February 2009) page 30, lines 22–25.

  211. 211.

    Charter D (2009) Chaos reigns at International Criminal Court trial of Thomas Lubanga. The Times (London, 28 January 2009).

  212. 212.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript T-123 (10 February 2009) page 4, line 15 to page 5, line 6.

  213. 213.

    Aegis Lubanga Chronicles (2010) Backgrounder: Protective measures for Witnesses. 5 October 2010 http://www.aegistrust.org/Lubanga-Chronicles/backgrounder-protective-measures-for-witnessses.html Accessed 21 March 2013.

  214. 214.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript T-123 (16 June 2009) page 6, lines 7–17.

  215. 215.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript T-334 (22 November 2010) page 57, lines 16–23.

  216. 216.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0015) T-264 (18 March 2010) page 32, lines 14–18; ICC-01/04-0 l/06-T-265 (19 March 2010) page 4, line 9 to page 5, line 24 and page 9, lines 12–14.

  217. 217.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0298) T-152 (20 March 2009) page 43, line 18 to page 44, line 5.

  218. 218.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript T-143 (5 March 2009) page 8, line 4 to page 9, line 1.

  219. 219.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Defence’s Opening Statement) T-236 (27 January 2010) page 20, line 19 to page 22, line 18.

  220. 220.

    Ibid, page 31, lines 19–22.

  221. 221.

    Ibid, page 51, lines 18–23.

  222. 222.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness DRC-D01-WWWW-0004) T-245 (9 February 2010) page 11, line 25 to page 12, line 15; page 7, lines 2–19.

  223. 223.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness DRC-D01-WWWW-0016) T-256 (8 March 2010) page 12, line 2 to page 14, line 17.

  224. 224.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness DRC-D01-WWWW-0003) ICC-01/04-01/06-T-240 (8 February 2010) page 6, line 24 to page 7, line 2.

  225. 225.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Redacted Decision on the Prosecution's Urgent Request for Variation of the Time-Limit to Disclose the Identity of Intermediary 143 or Alternatively to Stay Proceedings Pending Further Consultations with the VWU) ICC-01/04-01/06-2517-RED (8 July 2010) [31].

  226. 226.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Prosecution’s Appeal against Trial Chamber I’s oral decision to release Thomas Lubanga Dyilo and Urgent Application for Suspensive Effect) ICC-01/04-01/06-252 (16 July 2010).

  227. 227.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Oral Decision of Trial Chamber I of 15 July 2010 to release Thomas Lubanga Dyilo) ICC‐01/04‐01/06‐T‐314 (15 July 2010) [17–23].

  228. 228.

    Baylis 2009, p. 121. See also Whiting 2009, p. 207.

  229. 229.

    Verrijn Stuart 2008, pp. 414–415.

  230. 230.

    ICC Press Release ‘ICC First verdict: Thomas Lubanga guilty of conscripting and enlisting children under the age of 15 and using them to participate in hostilities’ (17 March 2012).

  231. 231.

    Prosecutor v Vujadin Popovic et al. (Trial Judgment) IT-05-88-T (10 June 2010).

  232. 232.

    D Jacobs, First Judgment at the ICC: Some Random Thoughts on the Lubanga Verdict (Part 1). Speading the Jam, 14 March 2012. http://dovjacobs.blogspot.com/2012/03/first-judgment-at-icc-some-random.html Accessed 21 March 2013.

  233. 233.

    See www.kony2012.com.

  234. 234.

    For critical perspectives on the campaign, see: Keating J (2012) Joseph Kony is not in Uganda (and other complicated things). Foreign Policy, 7 March 2012. http://blog.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2012/03/07/guest_post_joseph_kony_is_not_in_uganda_and_other_complicated_things Accessed 21 March 2013; and Curtis P (2012) Kony 2012: The Reaction. The Guardian (London, 13 March 2012)

  235. 235.

    Smith D (2012) Kony 2012 puts child soldiers back under the spotlight. The Guardian (London, 16 March 2012) http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2012/mar/16/kony-2012-child-soldiers-spotlight?newsfeed=true Accessed 21 March 2013; Christian Science Monitor (2012) After guilty verdict for warlord Lubanga, will Kony be captured in 2012 Boston, 14 March 2012. http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/the-monitors-view/2012/0314/After-guilty-verdict-for-warlord-Lubanga-will-Kony-be-captured-in-2012 Accessed 21 March 2013.

  236. 236.

    Kersten M (2012) Beyond “KONY2012”—judgment Day and the Lubanga Verdict. Justice in Conflict, 14 March 2012. http://justiceinconflict.org/2012/03/14/beyond-kony2012-judgment-day-and-the-lubanga-verdict Accessed 21 March 2013.

  237. 237.

    Lubanga Trial Judgment (n 145 above) [482].

  238. 238.

    Ibid [291, 373, 449].

  239. 239.

    Ibid [482] ‘Irrespective of the Chamber’s conclusions regarding the credibility and reliability of these alleged former child soldiers, given their youth and likely exposure to conflict, they were vulnerable to manipulation’.

  240. 240.

    Ibid.

  241. 241.

    Ibid.

  242. 242.

    Rome Statute (n 2 above) Article 70(1)(c) provides that the Court has jurisdiction over the offence of ‘corruptly influencing a witness, obstructing or interfering with the attendance or testimony of a witness, retaliating against a witness for giving testimony or destroying, tampering with or interfering with the collection of evidence’.

  243. 243.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Prosecution Closing Submissions) ICC-01/04-01/06-2748-Red (21 July 2011) [Hereafter ‘Prosecution Closing Submissions’] [138].

  244. 244.

    Lubanga Judgment (n 145 above) [608].

  245. 245.

    Ibid [607].

  246. 246.

    Ibid [617]. On 10 July 2012, Thomas Lubanga Dyilo was sentenced to fourteen years imprisonment by the Trial Chamber. See: Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Decision on Sentence pursuant to Article 76 of the Statute) ICC-01/04-01/06-2901-Red (10 July 2012).

  247. 247.

    The Trial Chamber found that there were no aggravating circumstances to take into account when determining sentencing. The Prosecution had argued that the nature of the punishments received by recruits, the sexual violence experienced by the children, their defencelessness and the discrimination against the female children ought to have constituted aggravating circumstances.

  248. 248.

    Ibid [608, 618].

  249. 249.

    Ibid [620].

  250. 250.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0299) T-117-Red (4 February 2009) page 7, line 23 to page 8, line 2 and page 10, lines 9–14; (Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0213) T-132 (20 February 2009) page 9, lines 21–25; (Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0007) T-149 (17 March 2009) page 65, lines 11–16; (Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0297) T-285 (17 May 2010) page 45, line 24 to page 46, line 12.

  251. 251.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0008) T-135 (25 Feb 2009) page 9, lines 21–25.

  252. 252.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0010) T-144 (5 March 2009), page 21, lines 9–11; (Witness Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0089) T-195 (19 June 2009) page 45, line 17.

  253. 253.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0016) T-189 (10 June 2009) page 15, lines 17–25.

  254. 254.

    Ibid page 81, line 14.

  255. 255.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Witness DRC-OTP-WWWW-0055) T-177 (20 May 2009) page 52, lines 5–11.

  256. 256.

    At p. 164 above.

  257. 257.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Prosecution’s Opening Statement) T-107 (26 January 2009) page 14, lines 21–22.

  258. 258.

    Ibid page 14, lines 7–10.

  259. 259.

    Lubanga Judgment (n 145) [610], citing ‘The Psychological Impact of Child Soldiering’, EVD-CHM-00001, 7–8.

  260. 260.

    Ibid [612], citing ‘Written submissions of Ms Coomaraswamy’ EVD-CHM-00007 [14].

  261. 261.

    Lubanga Trial Transcript (Testimony of Radhika Coomaraswamy) T-223 (7 January 2010) page 27, lines 8–13.

  262. 262.

    Lubanga Judgment (n 145 above) [617].

  263. 263.

    Prosecution Closing Submissions (n 244 above) [143].

  264. 264.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga (Defence Closing Submissions) ICC-01/04-01/06-2773-Red-tEN (11 August 2011) [Hereafter ‘Defence Closing Submissions’] [40].

  265. 265.

    Ibid [39].

  266. 266.

    Ibid [43].

  267. 267.

    Ibid [35–36].

  268. 268.

    Ibid [45].

  269. 269.

    Lubanga Trial Judgment (n 145 above) [628].

  270. 270.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Separate and Dissenting Opinion of Judge Odio Benito) ICC-01/04-01/06-2842 (14 March 2012) [Hereafter ‘Opinion of Judge Odio Benito’] [18].

  271. 271.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Decision on the applications by victims to participate in the proceedings) ICC-01/04-0 l/06-1556-Corr-Anx1 (15 December 2008) Annex 1 [103].

  272. 272.

    Aptel C (2012) Lubanga Decision Roundtable: The Participation of Children in Hostilities. Opinio Juris 19 March 2012 http://opiniojuris.org/2012/03/18/lubanga-decision-roundtable-the-participation-of-children-in-hostilities/ Accessed 21 March 2013.

  273. 273.

    Opinion of Judge Odio Benito (n 270 above) [16].

  274. 274.

    Lubanga Trial Judgment (n 145 above) [630].

  275. 275.

    Rome Statute (n 2 above) Article 74(2): ‘The Court may base its decision only on evidence submitted and discussed before it at the trial’.

  276. 276.

    Jacobs D (2012) Lubanga Decision Roundtable: Lubanga, Sexual Violence and the Legal Re-Characterization of Facts. Opinio Juris, 18 March 2012. http://opiniojuris.org/2012/03/18/lubanga-decision-roundtable-lubanga-sexual-violence-and-the-legal-re-characterization-of-facts/ Accessed 21 March 2013.

  277. 277.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [277–281].

  278. 278.

    Prosecution Closing Submissions (n 244 above) [30].

  279. 279.

    Defence Closing Submissions (n 264 above) [694–699].

  280. 280.

    Rome Statute (n 2) Article 8(2)(f): ‘Paragraph 2 (e) applies to armed conflicts not of an international character and thus does not apply to situations of internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots, isolated and sporadic acts of violence or other acts of a similar nature…’.

  281. 281.

    Lubanga Trial Judgment (n 145 above) [566].

  282. 282.

    Ibid [568].

  283. 283.

    Ibid.

  284. 284.

    Opinion of Judge Odio Benito (n 270 above) [12].

  285. 285.

    Ibid [14].

  286. 286.

    See Sect. 5.3.6 262–269.

  287. 287.

    Prosecution Closing Submissions (n 244 above) [64–65].

  288. 288.

    Defence Closing Submissions (n 264 above) [65]; [81–82].

  289. 289.

    Prosecution Closing Submissions (n 244 above) fn 105; Defence Closing Submissions (n 264 above) [77].

  290. 290.

    Lubanga Trial Judgment (n 145 above) [985].

  291. 291.

    Ibid [984].

  292. 292.

    Ibid [999] [Emphasis within original text].

  293. 293.

    Ibid [994].

  294. 294.

    Ibid [1000–1001].

  295. 295.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [342].

  296. 296.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Separate Opinion of Judge Fulford) ICC-01/04-01/06-2842 (14 March 2012) [Hereafter ‘Opinion of Judge Fulford’] [13].

  297. 297.

    Ibid.

  298. 298.

    Ibid.

  299. 299.

    Ibid [17].

  300. 300.

    Ohlin 2011, pp. 693–753.

  301. 301.

    Opinion of Judge Fulford (n 296 above) [19].

  302. 302.

    Ibid [21].

  303. 303.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [365].

  304. 304.

    Prosecution Closing Submissions (n 244 above) [72].

  305. 305.

    Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo (Prosecution’s response to the Closing Submissions of the Defence) ICC-01/04-01/06-2778-Red (16 August 2011) [39].

  306. 306.

    Lubanga Trial Judgment (n 145 above) [1015].

  307. 307.

    Ibid [986].

  308. 308.

    Ibid [1012].

  309. 309.

    Ibid [1013].

  310. 310.

    Ibid [1019]. Bosco Ntaganda is now in ICC custody awaiting trial, after voluntarily turning himself over to the Court in March 2013. See ‘Congolese warlord Bosco Ntaganda in custody at International Criminal Court’ The Guardian, London, 22 March 2013.

  311. 311.

    Lubanga Trial Judgment (n 145 above) [1356].

  312. 312.

    Ibid [1266].

  313. 313.

    Ibid [1278].

  314. 314.

    Opinion of Judge Odio Benito (n 270 above) [6, 13], [7]: ‘It would be impermissible for a Chamber to decline to enter a comprehensive legal definition of a crime and leave it open to a case-by-case analysis or to the limited scope of the charges brought against the accused’.

  315. 315.

    Ibid [15].

  316. 316.

    Ibid [7].

  317. 317.

    Ibid [8].

  318. 318.

    Jacobs, Comments on Lubanga Judgment (Part 3): the armed conflict, the elements of the crime and a dissent against the dissent. Spreading the Jam, 15 March 2012. http://dovjacobs.blogspot.com/2012/03/comments-on-lubanga-judgment-part-3.html Accessed 21 March 2013.

  319. 319.

    M. Gouby, On Home Ground, Lubanga Verdict Falls Flat’ (Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 16 March 2012. http://iwpr.net/report-news/home-ground-lubanga-verdict-falls-flat Accessed 22 March 2013.

  320. 320.

    O. Bueno, The ICC’s First Verdict: The View from Ituri. The Interdependent, 3 April 2012. www.theinterdependent.com/120403/the-icc’s-first-verdict-the-view-from-ituri Accessed 5 April 2013.

  321. 321.

    Ibid.

  322. 322.

    Human Rights Watch (2012) ICC: Landmark Verdict a Warning to Rights Abusers. 14 March 2012. http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/03/14/icc-landmark-verdict-warning-rights-abusers Accessed 5 April 2013.

  323. 323.

    Amnesty International (2012) Landmark ICC verdict over use of child soldiers. 14 March 2012. http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/landmark-icc-verdict-over-use-child-soldiers-2012-03-14 Accessed 5 April 2013.

  324. 324.

    UN News Centre (2012) In landmark ruling, ICC finds Congolese warlord guilty of recruiting child soldiers. 14 March 2012. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=41537&Cr=ICC&Cr1 Accessed 5 April 2013.

  325. 325.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [277–281].

  326. 326.

    Ibid [247].

  327. 327.

    Ibid [308].

  328. 328.

    Ibid [263].

  329. 329.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 3, Article 13(3) (entered into force 7 December 1978; accession by Sierra Leone on 21 October 1986); Guibert and Blumenstock 2007, pp. 367, 381.

  330. 330.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [359].

  331. 331.

    Ibid [359].

  332. 332.

    Lubanga Trial Judgment (n 145 above) [1015].

  333. 333.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [351]; Badar 2008, p. 474.

  334. 334.

    Lubanga Confirmation of Charges (n 4 above) [352].

  335. 335.

    Ibid [351–352].

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McBride, J. (2014). Child Soldiers at the International Criminal Court. In: The War Crime of Child Soldier Recruitment. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-921-4_5

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