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The Influence of International Organisations on the EU’s Area of Freedom, Security and Justice: A First Inquiry

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Abstract

The EU’s commitments to maintain itself as an Area of Freedom, Security and Justice (AFSJ) and to global security governance place the development of EU instruments in the realm of Justice and Home Affairs at the centre of a crossroads between municipal, bilateral and multilateral norms. However, while the relationship between national and EU legislation as well as the relationship between the EU and third countries in Justice and Home Affairs matters are being thoroughly analysed, the study of the interconnections between EU law and norms stemming from multilateral fora is a relatively unexplored side of the external dimension of the AFSJ. This contribution provides a first overview of the different ways in which, as a result of its commitment to multilateralism, the EU’s AFSJ can potentially or actually be influenced by norms stemming from international organisations. This paper argues that while the EU legal order is open to external normative influences, only a couple of international organisations are currently influencing the development of the AFSJ.

Researcher, T.M.C. Asser Institute, The Hague and Lecturer in European Law at the Centre for European Studies of the University of Twente, The Netherlands

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Wessel et al. 2011; Martenczuk et al. 2009.

  2. 2.

    Article 217 TFEU.

  3. 3.

    Articles 3(5) TEU, 6 TEU, 220 TFEU and 221 TFEU.

  4. 4.

    ECJ Joined cases C-402/05 P and C-415/05 P Yassin Abdullah Kadi and Al Barakaat international Foundation v Council and Commission [2008] ECR I-6351.

  5. 5.

    This contribution adheres to the broad understanding of international organisations and norms proposed by Wouters and Odermatt in Chap. 3 of this volume. Thus, for instance, it considers the European Convention on Human Rights and its Court qua bodies of the Council of Europe and the adoption of multilateral conventions, such as the United Nations Convention on Transnational Organised Crime, as expressions of the United Nations.

  6. 6.

    Chapter 6 of this volume.

  7. 7.

    ECJ Case 6/64 Costa v Enel [1964] ECR 585.

  8. 8.

    Van Rossem 2011.

  9. 9.

    ECJ Joined cases C-402/05 P and C-415/05 P Yassin Abdullah Kadi and Al Barakaat international Foundation v Council and Commission [2008] ECR I-6351, para 303.

  10. 10.

    Ibid., para 304.

  11. 11.

    Eckes 2011.

  12. 12.

    For an analysis of the ongoing developments in EU-international law relations, see Eckes 2011.

  13. 13.

    Article 21(2) TEU.

  14. 14.

    For a recent analysis of the case law of the Court of Justice see Eckes 2011.

  15. 15.

    For instance in ECJ Case C-286/90 Anklagemyndigheden v Peter Poulsen and Diva Navigation Corp. [1992] ECR I-6019, and in ECJ Case C-162/96 Racke GmbH Co. v Hauptzollamt Mainz [1998] ECR I-3655.

  16. 16.

    Mendez 2010.

  17. 17.

    See ECJ Case 222/84 Johnston [1986] ECR 1651. For an analysis of the influence of the ECHR on the case law concerning the AFSJ by the Court of Justice see Peers 2011a.

  18. 18.

    See for instance the Pupino judgment where this is mentioned, ECJ Case C-105/03 Pupino [2005] ECR I-5285, para 59.

  19. 19.

    For a commentary on the imitation causes contained in Article 52 of the Charter see Groppi 2010.

  20. 20.

    For a detailed analysis of the relation between the different AFSJ instruments and the ECHR see Peers 2011a.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., p. 100.

  22. 22.

    Infra, 10.2.1.1.

  23. 23.

    Emphasis added.

  24. 24.

    Either as members of the UN or any other State that was invited to the Plenipotentiaries that led to the adoption of the Convention.

  25. 25.

    Article 72 TFEU.

  26. 26.

    E.g. Council Directive 2005/85/EC of 1 December 2005 on minimum standards on procedures in Member States for granting and withdrawing refugee status OJ 2005 L 326, where reference is made not only in the preamble, but also in relation to other salient features such as Article 2 on Definitions and Article 3 on the scope of the directive, where an express reference to the content of the convention is made.

  27. 27.

    See Council Directive 2005/85/EC of 1 December 2005 on minimum standards on procedures in Member States for granting and withdrawing refugee status OJ 2005 L 326, Articles 21 et seq. that absorbs Article 35 of the Geneva Convention.

  28. 28.

    ECJ Joined Cases C-175/08, C-176/08, C-178/08, C-179/08 Abdulla, Hasan, Adem, Rashi and Jama v Germany [2010] ECR I-1493, para 52.

  29. 29.

    Ibid., para 53.

  30. 30.

    The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has responsibility to supervise the implementation and application of international conventions on the protection of refugees. On the basis of this capacity he cooperates with national governments and the institutions in Brussels, but his powers are limited to consultations, opinions and recommendations.

  31. 31.

    In the sense of the hermeneutic monopoly of the Court see Mancini 1992, 67.

  32. 32.

    The former Article 68 TEC only allowed for preliminary rulings (according to Article 267 TFEU) for requests coming from national jurisdictions of last resort.

  33. 33.

    Peers 2011b, 682.

  34. 34.

    The ECHR does not contain provisions on asylum, but the case law on protection from refoulement is abundant. Lambert 2005.

  35. 35.

    The principle of mutual recognition in relation to the AFSJ has been widely analysed. See De Kerchove et al. 2005.

  36. 36.

    For a recent analysis of mutual recognition instruments see Peers 2011a.

  37. 37.

    Programme 2001/C 12/02 which evolved at the informal Council of the Ministers for Justice and Home Affairs held in Marseilles on 28 and 29 July 2000, Programme of measures to implement the principle of mutual recognition of decisions in criminal matters, OJ 2001 C 12/10.

  38. 38.

    Ibid., para 5.

  39. 39.

    Articles 67, 81 and 82 TFEU.

  40. 40.

    Euopean Council 2010/C 115/01, The Stockholm Programme—An Open and Secure Europe Serving and Protecting Citizens, OJ 2010 C 115/5. Emphasis added.

  41. 41.

    Flore 2003; Jegouzo 2003; De Kerchove et al. 2005.

  42. 42.

    Council Regulation (EC) No. 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003 concerning jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and the matters of parental responsibility, repealing Regulation (EC) No 1347/2000, OJ 2003 L 338/1.

  43. 43.

    ECJ Case C-491/10 PPU Joseba Andoni Zarraga v Simone Pelz, Judgment of 22 December 2010, not yet reported.

  44. 44.

    Council Regulation (EC) No. 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003 concerning jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and the matters of parental responsibility, repealing Regulation (EC) No 1347/2000, OJ 2003 L 338/1, para 46.

  45. 45.

    Ibid., para 51.

  46. 46.

    For an analysis of this case and the principle of mutual trust in relation to human rights protection in Luxembourg and Strasbourg see Dautricourt 2010.

  47. 47.

    See, for instance, Council Framework Decision 2002/584/JHA of 13 June 2002 on the European arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, Articles 1(3), 3 and 4 as well as recitals 10 and 12 of the preamble, OJ 2002 L 190/1, indicating the priority of human rights and fair trial rights over mutual recognition. For a general assessment of these mechanisms see Peers 2011a and Raulus 2011.

  48. 48.

    Council Regulation (EC) No. 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national, OJ 2003 L 50/1.

  49. 49.

    For an analysis of the system, see Peers 2011a, 360.

  50. 50.

    The Dublin II Regulation, Article 3(2) affirms: “(…), each Member State may examine an application for asylum lodged with it by a third-country national, even if such examination is not its responsibility under the criteria laid down in this Regulation. In such an event, that Member State shall become the Member State responsible within the meaning of this Regulation and shall assume the obligations associated with that responsibility. Where appropriate, it shall inform the Member State previously responsible, the Member State conducting a procedure for determining the Member State responsible or the Member State which has been requested to take charge of or take back the applicant”.

  51. 51.

    While it is generally acknowledged that Article 3(2) leaves wide discretion to Member States, recent practice shows that the use of the provision in relation to human rights concerns. See the UNHCR Information Note on National Practice in the Application of Article 3(2) of the Dublin II Regulation, in particular in the context of intended transfers to Greece, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/4c18e6f92.pdf Accessed 7 June 2012.

  52. 52.

    Dublin II Regulation, recital 2 of the preamble.

  53. 53.

    ECtHR M.S.S. v Belgium and Greece [2011], Application No. 30696/09. For a comment see Moreno-Lax 2012.

  54. 54.

    Ibid., paras 16 and 194–195, quoting a report by the UNHCR.

  55. 55.

    Ibid., para 330.

  56. 56.

    Ibid., para 353.

  57. 57.

    ECJ Joined Cases C-411/10 and C-493/10 N.S. v Secretary of State for the Home Department and M.E. and others v Refugee Applications Commissioner and Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform, Judgment of 21 December 2011, not yet reported.

  58. 58.

    Ibid., paras 75–80.

  59. 59.

    Ibid., para 77.

  60. 60.

    Ibid., para 86, emphasis added.

  61. 61.

    Article 4 of the Charter contains the prohibition of torture and inhuman or degrading treatment and is a replica of Article 3 ECHR.

  62. 62.

    This can be deduced from paras 95–99.

  63. 63.

    Ibid., paras 88–91.

  64. 64.

    Joined cases C-411/10 and C-493/10, supra note 57, para 106.

  65. 65.

    For an analysis of the different agreements in force and the potential of external relations in these fields see Martenczuk et al. 2009.

  66. 66.

    Council Decision 206/617/EC of 24 July 2006 on the conclusion, on behalf of the European Community, of the Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime concerning the provisions of the Protocol, in so far as the provisions of the Protocol fall within the scope of Part III, Title IV of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ 2006 L 262/24.

  67. 67.

    Ibid., p. 44.

  68. 68.

    Directive 2011/36/EU of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA, OJ 2011 L 101/1.

  69. 69.

    Council Decision 2010/252/EU of 26 April 2010 supplementing the Schengen Borders Code as regards the surveillance of the sea external borders in the context of operational cooperation coordinated by the European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union, OJ 2010 L 111/20. An action for annulment promoted by the European Parliament is currently pending before the Court of Justice on the ground that the Council acted ultra vires, see ECJ Case C-355/10 (pending).

  70. 70.

    See Council Decision 2010/252/EU of 26 April 2010 supplementing the Schengen Borders Code as regards the surveillance of the sea external borders in the context of operational cooperation coordinated by the European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union, OJ 2010 L 111, para 2.5.2.5.

  71. 71.

    Council Decision 2004/579/EC of 29 April 2004 on the conclusion, on behalf of the European Community, of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, OJ 2004 L 261/69. For a commentary, see Rijken and Kronenberger 2001.

  72. 72.

    Mitsilegas 2011.

  73. 73.

    See Mitsilegas 2009, 291 et seq.

  74. 74.

    For an overview of the relations of the EU with the Council of Europe see Chap. 6 of this volume as well as Mitsilegas 2011 and Mitsilegas 2009.

  75. 75.

    Commission proposal to amend Directive 91/308/EEC on the prevention of the use of the financial system for the purpose of money laundering, COM (1999) 352 final; for an analysis see Mitsilegas 2011, 245–251.

  76. 76.

    The issue is discussed in Peers 2011a, 648–654.

  77. 77.

    Van Loon et al. 2009.

  78. 78.

    Council Decision 2006/719/EC of 5 October 2006 on the accession of the Community to the Hague Conference on Private International Law, OJ 2006 L 297/1.

  79. 79.

    On this point Cremona 2008, p. 23.

  80. 80.

    On the use of disconnection clauses in EU law, see Cremona 2010 and Kuijper 2011. On the emerging trend of emancipating EU criminal law from Council of Europe conventions see Mitsilegas 2011.

  81. 81.

    Wessel et al. 2011.

  82. 82.

    Curtin 2011.

  83. 83.

    Council Decision 2009/371/JHA of 6 April 2009 establishing the European Police Office (Europol), OJ 2009 L 121/37.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., Article 5 on the Tasks of the Agency is an elaborated provision divided into a number of sections. The first paragraph deals with the principal tasks summarised in the text above. Paragraph 2 calls upon the Agency to support Member States in gathering information from the Internet in order to identify criminal activities committed through the internet. Paragraphs 3 and 4 confer upon the Agency some additional tasks related to intelligence services and investigative know-how and the training of national police forces whereas para 5 gives the Agency the function of a Central Office for combating euro counterfeiting.

  85. 85.

    Ibid., Article 2: “Legal capacity 1. Europol shall have legal personality. 2. In each Member State Europol shall enjoy the most extensive legal and contractual capacity accorded to legal persons under that Member State’s law. Europol may, in particular, acquire and dispose of movable and immovable property and may be a party to legal proceedings. 3. Europol shall be empowered to conclude a Headquarters Agreement with the Kingdom of the Netherlands”.

  86. 86.

    Thus, on the basis of the last Council Decision adopted on Article 26(1)(a) Europol has been given the mandate to conclude agreements with three international organisations: ICPO-Interpol, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the World Customs Organisation. Council Decision 2009/935/JHA of 30 November 2009 determining the list of third States and organisations with which Europol shall conclude agreements, OJ 2009 L 325/12.

  87. 87.

    See the combined reading of Articles 23(2) and 23(6).

  88. 88.

    Agreement between Europol and the World Customs Organisation of 2002, available at https://www.europol.europa.eu/sites/default/files/flags/world_customs_organization_.pdf. Accessed June 2012.

  89. 89.

    Ibid., Articles 3 and 4.

  90. 90.

    Curtin 2011; Mitsilegas 2009; De Hert and de Schutter 2008.

  91. 91.

    Council Decision 2002/187/JHA of 28 February 2002 setting up Eurojust with a view to reinforcing the fight against serious crime, OJ 2002 L 63/1.

  92. 92.

    Decision 2009/426/JHA of 16 December 2008 on the strengthening of Eurojust and amending Decision 2002/187/JHA of 28 February 2002 setting up Eurojust with a view to reinforcing the fight against serious crime, OJ 2009 L 138.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., Article 1.

  94. 94.

    ETS 108, Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data of 1981, ratified by all EU Member States, but not open to international organisations.

  95. 95.

    Concluded in Brussels on 26 February 2010 and available at: http://eurojust.europa.eu/doclibrary/Eurojust-framework/Pages/agreements-concluded-by-eurojust.aspx?Page=2 Accessed 7 June 2012.

  96. 96.

    Concluded in 2002 and available at: http://eurojust.europa.eu/doclibrary/Eurojust-framework/agreements/Memorandum%20of%20Understanding%20between%20Eurojust%20and%20Iber-RED%20(2009)/Eurojust-IberRED-2009-05-04-EN.pdf Accessed 7 June 2012.

  97. 97.

    Council Doc. 6758/12, Brussels 1 March 2012, Summary of the conclusions of the meeting of the JHA-RELEX Working Party.

  98. 98.

    Founding statute: Council Regulation 2007/2004 of 26 October 2004 establishing a European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union, OJ 2004 L 349/1. Amendments: Regulation (EC) No. 863/2007 of 11 July 2007 establishing a mechanism for the creation of Rapid Border Intervention Teams and amending Council Regulation (EC) No. 2007/2004 as regards that mechanism and regulating the tasks and powers of guest officers, OJ 2007 L 199 and Regulation (EU) No. 1168/2011 of 25 October 2011 amending Council Regulation (EC) No. 2007/2004 establishing a European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union OJ 2011 L 304.

  99. 99.

    Papastavridis 2010.

  100. 100.

    On the basis of a written request to the Agency, photocopies of the agreements were sent to the author. On the website of the Agency in question it is only possible to access a page where the partners of Frontex are named, but with no link to the agreements themselves. Available at http://frontex.europa.eu/partners/international-organisations Accessed May 2012.

  101. 101.

    The conclusion would be an opposite one in relation to other agreements concluded by the AFSJ’s agencies with third countries: see, inter alia, Curtin 2011; Papastavridis 2010; Mitsilegas 2009; De Hert and de Schutter 2008.

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  1. T.M.C. Asser Institute and Centre for European Studies, University of Twente, The Hague, Enschede, The Netherlands

    Claudio Matera

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    Ramses A. Wessel

  2. , Unit on EU Foreign Policy, Centre for European Policy Studies, Place du Congres 1, Brussels, 1000, Brussels Hoofdst.ge., Belgium

    Steven Blockmans

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Matera, C. (2013). The Influence of International Organisations on the EU’s Area of Freedom, Security and Justice: A First Inquiry. In: Wessel, R., Blockmans, S. (eds) Between Autonomy and Dependence. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague, The Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-903-0_12

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