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EU External Relations Law and Policy in the Post-Lisbon Era pp 241–263Cite as

EU-North Africa Relations in Cross-Border Law Enforcement: New Legal Challenges for the EU in the Post-Lisbon and Post-Stockholm Era

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Abstract

The Stockholm Programme, allied to the Lisbon Treaty, heralds a new era of development of the EU provisions on cross-border law enforcement. The focus is shifting from the ongoing internal EU developments to the external relations of the EU. Many North African countries have had long legal relationships with the EU through the Euro-Mediterranean Partnerships. A number of these partnership agreements make express references, at the political level, to the development of cross-border law enforcement provision, as is the case of Morocco and Algeria with regard to drug trafficking and manufacture, or the lengthy references by Egypt to many of the crimes of interest to the EU’s own law enforcement legal framework. Algeria is currently focusing on modernising their own police forces, with both Algeria and Tunisia, reforming their criminal judicial frameworks. Another key player, Libya, currently has no legal agreements with the EU, and at least until the recent conflict, maintained an observer status in the Euro-Mediterranean process. At a practitioner level, the European Police College (CEPOL) is currently involved in the Euromed Police II programme. Clearly momentum is developing, both within the EU and from a number of Euro-Med North African countries to develop closer law enforcement co-operation. This may well develop further with the recent changes in governments of a number of North African countries. The EU approach in the Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters (PJCCM) policy area is to develop a legal framework upon which EU cross-border law enforcement will be based. The current EU cross-border law enforcement framework is the product of many years of multi-level negotiations. Challenges will arise as new countries from different legal and policing traditions will attempt to engage with already highly detailed legal and practice frameworks. The shared European legal traditions will not necessarily be reflected in the North African countries. This chapter critically analyses, from an EU legal perspective the problems and issues that will be encountered as the EU’s North African partner countries attempt to articulate into the existing, and still developing EU cross-border law enforcement framework.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Lannon 2008, 360.

  2. 2.

    Cardwell 2009, 126.

  3. 3.

    Namely Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.

  4. 4.

    The ‘Arab Mediterranean countries’ are Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia.

  5. 5.

    Cardwell 2009, 111.

  6. 6.

    Lannon 2008, 360.

  7. 7.

    Lannon 2008, 361.

  8. 8.

    Lannon 2008, 360.

  9. 9.

    See, generally, Bicchi 2011.

  10. 10.

    Cardwell 2011, 235.

  11. 11.

    Whose membership comprises Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Libya and Mauritania.

  12. 12.

    Gomez 2003, 50.

  13. 13.

    Lannon 2008, 368.

  14. 14.

    Lannon 2008, 368.

  15. 15.

    Gillespie 2008, 279.

  16. 16.

    Cardwell 2009.

  17. 17.

    Cardwell 2009, 176.

  18. 18.

    The nature of this provision is discussed further in this volume by Broberg and, in the context of neighbouring states, by Ghazaryan.

  19. 19.

    Gomez 2003, 114. For discussion of the aims of the EU’s policies towards the Eastern partners in the ENP, see the chapter in this volume by Dragneva and Wolczuk.

  20. 20.

    Barcelona Declaration, adopted at the Euro-Mediterranean Conference, 27th and 28th November 1995.

  21. 21.

    To include the establishment of a common area of peace and stability.

  22. 22.

    With a view to creating an area of shared prosperity.

  23. 23.

    The aim here being to develop human resources, prompting understanding between cultures and exchanges between civil societies.

  24. 24.

    Gomez 2003, 73.

  25. 25.

    Gomez 2003, 116.

  26. 26.

    Gomez 2003, 10.

  27. 27.

    Gomez 2003, 73.

  28. 28.

    Gomez 2003, 79.

  29. 29.

    Gomez 2003, 79.

  30. 30.

    Gomez 2003, 171.

  31. 31.

    Gomez 2003, 161.

  32. 32.

    Gomez 2003, 161.

  33. 33.

    Gomez 2003, 162.

  34. 34.

    Cardwell 2009, 101.

  35. 35.

    Cardwell 2009, 181.

  36. 36.

    In particular, Commission (2010) Strategy for the effective implementation of the Charter of Fundamental Rights by the European Union, COM (2010) 573. These developments are also evidenced in the recent Directive 2010/64/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 October 2010 on the right to interpretation and translation in criminal proceedings, OJ L 280, 1.

  37. 37.

    Currently operating under Council Decision 2009/371/JHA establishing the European Police Office, OJ L 121/37.

  38. 38.

    Council Decision 2008/615/JHA on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism and organised crime, OJ L 210/1, as implemented by Council Decision 2008/616/JHA, OJ L 210/1.

  39. 39.

    Belgium, Germany, Spain, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Austria.

  40. 40.

    Eurojust is currently operating on the basis of Council Decision 2002/187/JHA of 28 February 2002 setting up Eurojust with a view to reinforcing the fight against serious crime, OJ L 63, 06/03/2002, 1. However in 2011 this legal framework will be updated by Council Decision 2009/426/JHA of 16 December 2008 on the strengthening of Eurojust and amending Decision 2002/187/JHA setting up Eurojust with a view to reinforcing the fight against serious crime, OJ L 138, 04/06/2009, 14.

  41. 41.

    Council Decision 2008/976/JHA on the European Judicial Network, OJ L 348/130, repealing and replacing Joint Action 98/428/JHA, OJ L 191, 07/07/1998, 4.

  42. 42.

    Council Framework Decision 2002/584/JHA on the European Arrest Warrant, OJ L 190, 18/07/2002 P. 0001–0020.

  43. 43.

    Council Framework Decision 2008/978/JHA of 18 December 2008 on the European evidence warrant for the purpose of obtaining objects, documents and data for use in proceedings in criminal matters, OJ L 350, 30/12/2008, 72.

  44. 44.

    Inter alia, Regulation (EC) No. 45/2001 of the European Parliament and of the council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data by the Community institutions and bodies and on the free movement of such data, OJ L 8/1, and Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA on the protection of personal data processed in the framework of police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, OJ L 350/60.

  45. 45.

    Inter alia, Council Act of 3 November 1998 adopting rules on the confidentiality of Europol information (1999) OJ C 316, 27/11/1995, 1.

  46. 46.

    Council Decision 2001/264/EC of 19 March 2001 adopting the Council’s security regulations, OJ L 101/1, and Council Act of 3 November 1998 adopting rules on the confidentiality of Europol information (1999) OJ C 316, 27/11/1995, 1.

  47. 47.

    Council Framework Decision 2004/757/JHA of 25 October 2004 laying down minimum provisions on the constituent elements of criminal acts and penalties in the field of illicit drug trafficking, OJ L 335.and, inter alia, Council Decision 2005/387/JHA of 10 May 2005 on the information exchange, risk-assessment and control of new psychoactive substances, OJ L 127, 20/05/2005, 32.

  48. 48.

    Council Framework Decision 2008/841/JHA of 24 October 2008 on the fight against organised crime, OJ L 300, 11/11/2008, 42.

  49. 49.

    Council Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism, OJ L 164, 22/06/2002 p. 3, as updated by Council Framework Decision 2008/919/JHA of 28 November 2008 amending Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA on combating terrorism, OJ L 330, 09/12/2008 21.

  50. 50.

    Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JHA of 19 July 2002 concerning trafficking in human beings, OJ 2002 L203/1, which should be updated soon.

  51. 51.

    Inter alia, Council Directive 2002/90/EC of 28 November 2002 defining the facilitation of unauthorised entry, transit and residence, OJ L 328 of 05/12/2002.

  52. 52.

    Schengen Convention 1990, Article 41.

  53. 53.

    Schengen Convention 1990, Article 40.

  54. 54.

    Council Act of 29 May 2000 establishing in accordance with Article 34 of the Treaty on European Union the Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters between the Member States of the European Union, OJ C 197, Article 13.

  55. 55.

    Council Decision 2009/371/JHA, Article 14.

  56. 56.

    Schengen Convention 1990, Articles 92–119.

  57. 57.

    Council Decision 2009/371/JHA, Article 11.

  58. 58.

    Council Decision 2009/371/JHA, Article 15.

  59. 59.

    Council Decision of 3 December 1998 instructing Europol to deal with crimes committed or likely to be committed in the course of terrorist activities against life, limb, personal freedom or property, OJ C 26, 22.

  60. 60.

    Council Act of 29 May 2000 establishing in accordance with Article 34 of the Treaty on European Union the Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters between the Member States of the European Union, OJ C 197, Article 12.

  61. 61.

    Council Act of 29 May 2000 establishing in accordance with Article 34 of the Treaty on European Union the Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters between the Member States of the European Union, OJ C 197, Article 14.

  62. 62.

    Council Act of 29 May 2000 establishing in accordance with Article 34 of the Treaty on European Union the Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters between the Member States of the European Union, OJ C 197, Articles 17–22.

  63. 63.

    Council Decision 2008/615/JHA on the stepping up of cross-border cooperation, particularly in combating terrorism and organised crime, OJ L 210/1 Articles 2–7.

  64. 64.

    Council Decision 2008/615/JHA, Articles 8–11.

  65. 65.

    Council Decision 2008/615/JHA, Articles 12–15.

  66. 66.

    Council Decision 2008/615/JHA, Article 17.

  67. 67.

    Council Decision 2008/615/JHA, Article 19.

  68. 68.

    Council Decision 2008/615/JHA, Article 17.2.

  69. 69.

    See inter alia, Fijnaut 1993.

  70. 70.

    Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Article 73.

  71. 71.

    See in particular the Cooperation arrangement between Europol and the General Secretariat of the Council 27/09/2005, doc. 12332/1/05.

  72. 72.

    Cases C-317/04 & C-318/04, Parliament v. Council [2006] ECR I-4721.

  73. 73.

    Papakonstantinou and De Hert 2009, 900. For further discussion, see also the chapter in this volume by Quesada and Mincheva, who note that the US has generally been the driving force behind cooperation in data exchange, with the EU playing a more reactive role, largely because of the more burdensome decision-making processes.

  74. 74.

    De Witte 2008, 11.

  75. 75.

    De Witte 2008, 11. See also the contributions in this volume by Broberg, Schmidt and Puetter.

  76. 76.

    Council Decision 2004/860/EC, OJ 2004 L 37/78.

  77. 77.

    Council Decision 2004/849/EC, OJ 2004 L 368/26.

  78. 78.

    Cremona 2008, 38.

  79. 79.

    Cremona 2008, 39.

  80. 80.

    Opinion 2/2000(re Cartegena Protocol), [2001] ECR I-9713, para 5.

  81. 81.

    Cremona 2008, 42.

  82. 82.

    Cremona 2008, 42.

  83. 83.

    Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Article 89.

  84. 84.

    Cremona 2008, 42/43.

  85. 85.

    Case C-176/03 Commission v Council [2005] ECR I-7879.

  86. 86.

    Cremona 2008, 43/44.

  87. 87.

    Commission v Council [2005] and Case C-91/05; Commission v Council (re SALW), [2008] ECR I-03651.

  88. 88.

    Cremona 2008, 45.

  89. 89.

    Dashwood 2008, 101.

  90. 90.

    Cremona 2008, 49.

  91. 91.

    Opinion of AG Mengozzi in Case C-91/05; Commission v Council (re SALW), [2008] ECR I-03651.

  92. 92.

    Opinion of AG Mengozzi in Case C-91/05; Commission v Council (re SALW), [2008] ECR I-03651 at para 159.

  93. 93.

    Case C-91/05; Commission v Council (re SALW), [2008] ECR I-03651 para 29 of the ruling of the ECJ.

  94. 94.

    Case C-91/05; Commission v Council (re SALW), [2008] ECR I-03651 para 23 of the ruling of the ECJ.

  95. 95.

    Cremona 2008, 65.

  96. 96.

    Cases C-317/04 & C-318/04, Parliament v Council [2006] ECR I-4721.

  97. 97.

    Dashwood and Maresceau 2008, 6.

  98. 98.

    Cremona 2008, 50.

  99. 99.

    Cremona 2008, 50.

  100. 100.

    Treaty on European Union, Article 8.

  101. 101.

    Cremona 2008, 50.

  102. 102.

    Cremona 2008, 50.

  103. 103.

    Cremona 2008, 50.

  104. 104.

    Cremona 2008, 50.

  105. 105.

    Wolff 2010, 136.

  106. 106.

    Wolff 2010, 150.

  107. 107.

    Gomez 2003, 10.

  108. 108.

    Wolff 2010, 149.

  109. 109.

    Wolff 2010, 148.

  110. 110.

    Wolff 2010, 149.

  111. 111.

    Currently operating on the basis of Council Decision 2002/187/JHA of 28 February 2002 setting up Eurojust with a view to reinforcing the fight against serious crime, OJ L 63, 06/03/2002, 1, but about to be replaced by Council Decision 2009/426/JHA of 16 December 2008 on the strengthening of Eurojust and amending Decision 2002/187/JHA setting up Eurojust with a view to reinforcing the fight against serious crime, OJ L 138, 04/06/2009, 14.

  112. 112.

    Now operating on the basis of Council Decision 2009/371/JHA establishing the European Police Office, OJ L121/37.

  113. 113.

    Wolff 2010, 149.

  114. 114.

    Wolff 2010, 145.

  115. 115.

    Council Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism, OJ L 164, 22/06/2002, 3, as amended by Council Framework Decision 2008/919/JHA of 28 November 2008 amending Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA on combating terrorism, OJ L 330, 09/12/2008, 21.

  116. 116.

    Wolff 2010, 144/5.

  117. 117.

    Wolff 2010, 144/5.

  118. 118.

    Wolff 2010, 146.

  119. 119.

    Wolff 2010, 147.

  120. 120.

    Brussels, 25 March 2004.

  121. 121.

    Council Common Position 2001/930/CFSP of 27 December 2001 on combating terrorism, OJ L 344/90.

  122. 122.

    The European Union Counter—Terrorism Strategy, Brussels, 30 November 2005, 14469/4/05, Rev 4.

  123. 123.

    Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy—Providing Security in a Changing World—Brussels, 11 December 2008, S407/08, at I. Global Challenges and Key Threats, Terrorism and Organised Crime, 4.

  124. 124.

    Regulation (EC) No 1717/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 November 2006 establishing an Instrument for Stability, OJ L 327, 24/11/2006, 1, Article 4.1.a.

  125. 125.

    Regulation (EC) No 1717/2006, Article 4.1.a.

  126. 126.

    Cardwell 2009, 137.

  127. 127.

    Hakura 1997, 343/4.

  128. 128.

    Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy—Providing Security in a Changing World—Brussels, 11 December 2008, S407/08, at I. Global Challenges and Key Threats, Terrorism and Organised Crime, 4.

  129. 129.

    Wolff 2010, 150.

  130. 130.

    Wolff 2010, 150.

  131. 131.

    Mid-Term Review of the Country Strategy Paper Morocco 2007–2013 and National Indicative Program 2011–2013, 2.2. Changes in Horizontal External EU Policies or unforeseen events, para 6, 5.

  132. 132.

    Instrument Européen de voisinage et de Partenariat Algerie Programme Indicatif National 2011–2013, 2. Changements dans les politiques externs horizontals de l’UE, 4, para 6.

  133. 133.

    EU/Egypt Action Plan, 2. Actions, 2.4. Migration, social integration, justice and security, b) Law enforcement cooperation, 28.

  134. 134.

    Instrument Européen de voisinage et de Partenariat Algerie Programme Indicatif National 2011–2013, III. Cooperation Financiere, 1. Enseignements de la Cooperation Passee, at p. 6, para 3.

  135. 135.

    Instrument Européen de voisinage et de Partenariat Algerie Programme Indicatif National 2011–2013, IV. Programme Indicatif National 2011–2013, 1. Priorites et Objectifs Principaux, at p. 7.

  136. 136.

    Tunisie: Programme Indicatif National, 2011–2013, 2. Relations avec l’UE et situations du Pays, 2.2. Changements des politiques horizontales extérieures de l’UE et événements Imprévus, 3.4. Programme d’appui au secteur de la justice, 3.4.1. Contexte, at p. 24.

  137. 137.

    Which involves EU relations with Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Morocco, the Palestinian Authority, Syria and Tunisia.

  138. 138.

    Stockholm Programme—An open and secure Europe serving and protecting the citizens, Brussels, 2 December 2009, 17024/09, 7.1, para 1.

  139. 139.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09 7.3, para 1.

  140. 140.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09 7.1, para 2.

  141. 141.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09 7.3, para 2.

  142. 142.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09 7.3, para 2.

  143. 143.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09 7.1, para 1.

  144. 144.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09 7.2.

  145. 145.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09 7.6, para 5.

  146. 146.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09 7, para 4.

  147. 147.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09, 7.3, para 4.

  148. 148.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09, 7.5, para 7.

  149. 149.

    Union for the Mediterranean—European Parliament resolution of 20 May 2010 on the Union for the Mediterranean (2009/2215(INI)), OJ C 161E, 31/05/2011, p. 126.

  150. 150.

    Joint Communication to the European Council, the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions—A Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean, COM (2011) 200.

  151. 151.

    Joint Communication to the European Council, the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions—A Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean, COM (2011) 200.

  152. 152.

    Joint Communication to the European Council, the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions—A Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean, COM (2011) 200.

  153. 153.

    Joint Communication to the European Council, the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions—A Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean, COM (2011) 200.

  154. 154.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09, 7.5, para 8.

  155. 155.

    Stockholm Programme 2009, 17024/09, 7.5, para 1.

  156. 156.

    Gomez 2003, 73.

  157. 157.

    Gomez 2003, 175.

  158. 158.

    Gomez 2003, 114.

  159. 159.

    Cardwell 2009, 118.

  160. 160.

    Lannon 2008, 367.

  161. 161.

    Cardwell 2009, 207.

  162. 162.

    Treaty on European Union, Article 8.1.

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  1. Dundee Business School, University of Abertay Dundee, Scotland, UK

    Maria O’Neill

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    Paul James Cardwell

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O’Neill, M. (2011). EU-North Africa Relations in Cross-Border Law Enforcement: New Legal Challenges for the EU in the Post-Lisbon and Post-Stockholm Era. In: Cardwell, P. (eds) EU External Relations Law and Policy in the Post-Lisbon Era. T.M.C. Asser Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-823-1_12

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