Self-Defence in State-to-State Conflicts

Szabó, Kinga Tibori

doi:10.1007/978-90-6704-796-8_8

Kinga Tibori Szabó²

1264 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter looks at some of those conflicts of the 20th and 21st centuries that had states as belligerent parties and in which claims of self-defence were contemplated or used. First, instances of state practice involving anticipatory action (contemplated or undertaken) are analysed. Accordingly, the 1956 Sinai Campaign, the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1973 Yom Kippur War are discussed. Further, the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War and the 1982 Falklands War, as two instances in which remedial action in self-defence was taken, are examined for comparative purposes. Lastly, some examples of exercise of self-defence involving both remedial and anticipatory action are elaborated. Accordingly, the 1964 UK bombing of a Yemeni fort, the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident, the 1986 US bombing of Libya, the 1993 US airstrikes against the Iraqi intelligence headquarters and the 2008 South Ossetia War are analysed. The comparison between cases entailing anticipatory action and those involving remedial action assesses whether the limits of these two dimensions are identical or dissimilar in post-Charter state practice. The aim of this chapter is to examine the temporal dimension of self-defence as interpreted by the state practice involving state-to-state conflicts.

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Notes

1.
See supra 1.3.6.2.
2.
Laqueur and Rubin 2001, p. 81; Mansfield 2003, p. 236.
3.
Repertoire 1946–1951, Chap. 8, pp. 493–494.
4.
SC Res. 54 (1948).
5.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 191.
6.
Ibid., pp. 191–192; Sorenson 2008, p. 26.
7.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 192.
8.
Ibid., p. 193, Sorenson 2008, p. 26.
9.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 195.
10.
Ibid. (quoting Moshe Dayan).
11.
Mansfield 2003, pp. 256–257; Mueller et al. 2006, p. 196; Sorenson 2008, p. 26.
12.
Mansfield 2003, p. 257; Mueller et al. 2006, p. 196.
13.
SCOR, 11th Session, 749th and 750th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.749 and S/PV.750.Rev.1 (30 October 1956).
14.
GAOR, 1st Emergency Spec. Session, UN Doc. A/PV.562 (1956), paras 105–145.
15.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 196.
16.
Wright 1957, p. 272.
17.
Ibid.
18.
Ibid., p. 273.
19.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 198.
20.
Ibid., pp. 198–199.
21.
Sorenson 2008, p. 27; Mueller et al. 2006, p. 199.
22.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 200.
23.
United Nations Emergency Force, established in November 1956 as a result of UN General Assembly resolutions to supervise the cease-fire line in the aftermath of the Israeli Sinai campaign.
24.
Sorenson 2008, p. 26; Mueller et al. 2006, p. 200.
25.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 200.
26.
Ibid.
27.
Ibid., p. 202.
28.
Repertoire, Supp. 1966–1968, Chap. 8, p. 135.
29.
Statement of Mr. Eban (Israel), SCOR, 22th Session, 1348th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1348(OR) (6 June 1967) para 150; Wright 1968, p. 9.
30.
Repertoire, Supp. 1966–1968, Chap. 8, p. 136.
31.
Ibid.
32.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 204.
33.
Sorenson 2008, p. 27.
34.
Statement of Mr. Kony (United Arab Republic), SCOR, 22th Session, 1347th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1347(OR) (5 June 1967) para 53.
35.
Statement of Mr. Eban (Israel), SCOR, 22th Session, 1348th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1348(OR) (6 June 1967) paras 153, 155.
36.
Wright 1968, p. 27; Shapira 1971, pp. 75–76.
37.
Dinstein 2005, p. 192; Gill 2007, p. 139.
38.
Dinstein 2005, p. 192.
39.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 200.
40.
See supra 4.6.
41.
Sorenson 2008, p. 28; Mueller et al. 2006, p. 204.
42.
Wright 1968, p. 27; Greig 1991, pp. 394–395; Mueller et al. 2006, p. 204. See per a contrario: Shapira 1971, pp. 77–79.
43.
SC Res. 242 (1967) para 1(i).
44.
Greig 1991, p. 395.
45.
SC Res. 242 (1967) para 1(ii). Greig 1991, p. 395.
46.
Constantinou 2000, pp. 72–74; Per a contrario: Schwebel 1970, pp. 344–347.
47.
Christakis 2005, pp. 215–216; Corten 2008, pp. 660–661; Gazzini 2005, p. 150; Ruys 2010, pp. 274–275.
48.
Gill 2007, pp. 138–139; Shapira 1971, pp. 75–76; Wright 1968, p. 27.
49.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 206; Sorenson 2008, pp. 28–29.
50.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 206.
51.
Ibid., p. 207; Sorenson 2008, p. 30. See per a contrario, Levite 1987, p. 153; Israel knew attack was coming: Envoy to the US asserts (1973), p. 1.
52.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 207; Sorenson 2008, p. 30.
53.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 207; Sorenson 2008, p. 30.
54.
Mueller et al. 2006, p. 207.
55.
Ibid.
56.
Mansfield 2003, pp. 294–295.
57.
Sorenson 2008, p. 34.
58.
Karsh 2002, pp. 12, 22.
59.
Ibid., p. 13.
60.
Karsh 2002, pp. 12–13.
61.
Sorenson 2008, p. 34.
62.
Karsh 2002, p. 13; Kaikobad 1992, pp. 52–53.
63.
Statement of Mr. Hammadi (Iraq), SCOR, 35th Session, 2250th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.2250 (15 October 1980) paras 18–19, 21–22; Karsh, p. 13.
64.
Statement of Mr. Rajai (Iran), SCOR, 35th Session, 2251st meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.2251 (17 October 1980) para 18.
65.
Karsh, p. 14.
66.
UN Doc. S/14236 (1980).
67.
Karsh 2002, p. 14.
68.
UN Doc. S/14236 (1980).
69.
Ibid.
70.
Ibid.
71.
Sorenson 2008, p. 34.
72.
Ibid.; Karsh 2002, pp. 14, 19.
73.
Karsh 2002, pp. 33–42, 48–51.
74.
Sorenson 2008, pp. 34–35.
75.
SC Res. 479 (1980); 514 and 522 (1982); 540 (1983), 554 (1984); 582 and 588 (1986); 598 (1987); 612 and 620 (1988).
76.
UN Doc. S/23273 (1991), para 6.
77.
Ibid., para 7. On the significance of this report, see Gray 2004, p. 97.
78.
UN Doc. S/14236 (1980).
79.
Dekker 1992, pp. 258–259.
80.
UN Doc. S/14236 (1980).
81.
Freedman 2005 , vol 1, pp. 3–8.
82.
Freedman and Gamba-Stonehouse 1991, pp. 7–13.
83.
Ibid., pp. 47–48.
84.
Freedman 2005, vol 1, pp. 184–185.
85.
Ibid., p. 182.
86.
Ibid., p. 187.
87.
Freedman and Gamba-Stonehouse 1991, p. 109.
88.
Ibid., p. 76.
89.
Repertoire, Supp. 1981–1984, Chap. 8, pp. 224–226.
90.
The amphibious landing of some 200 Argentinean Marines with armoured vehicles was backed by air force. The aircraft carrier 25 de Mayo, escorted by several destroyers, provided support with approximately 1000 Marines on board. Freedman 2005, vol 2, pp. 7–9.
91.
Freedman and Gamba-Stonehouse 1991, p. 124.
92.
SC Res. 502 (1982).
93.
In addition to aircraft carriers Hermes and Invincible, three submarines, 11 destroyers and frigates as well as several other ships set sail. Freedman and Gamba-Stonehouse 1991, pp. 128–129.
94.
Freedman 2005, vol 2, pp. 62–64.
95.
Ibid., pp. 248–249, 651–652.
96.
Ibid., pp. 772–780.
97.
Repertoire, Supp. 1981–1984, Chap. 8, pp. 224–226.
98.
Neff 2005, p. 330.
99.
Repertoire, Supp. 1981–1984, Chap. 8, pp. 224–226.
100.
Freedman and Gamba-Stonehouse 1991, p. 122.
101.
Ibid., p. 128.
102.
Biffen 1982, pp. 519–520.
103.
See infra 14.5.
104.
Repertoire, Supp. 1964–1965, Chap. 8, p. 128; UN Doc. S/5343 (1963); UN Doc. S/5424 (1963).
105.
UN Doc. S/5618 (1964); UN Doc. S/5628 (1964); UN Doc. S/5632 (1964).
106.
Repertoire, Supp. 1964–1965, Chap. 8, p. 128.
107.
Ibid.
108.
Ibid.; SCOR, 19th Session, 1106th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1106 (2 April 1964) para 54.
109.
Ibid.
110.
Repertoire, Supp. 1964–1965, Chap. 8, p. 128.
111.
Ibid.; SCOR, 19th Session, 1106th–1109th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1106–S/PV.1109 (2–7 April 1964).
112.
Repertoire, Supp. 1964–1965, Chap. 11, p. 194.
113.
Ibid.
114.
SCOR, 19th Session, 1109th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1109 (7 April 1964) paras 26–27.
115.
SC Res. 188 (1964).
116.
Martel 1993, p. 36.
117.
Repertoire, Supp. 1964–1965, Chap. 8, p. 135; SCOR, 19th Session, 1140th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1140 (5 August 1964) paras 35–42.
118.
Martel 1993, p. 36.
119.
Ibid., p. 37.
120.
Ibid.
121.
SCOR, 19th Session, 1140th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1140 (5 August 1964) para 34.
122.
Repertoire, Supp. 1964–1965, Chap. 8, p. 135; SCOR, Session, 1140th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1140 (5 August 1964) para 42.
123.
SCOR, 19th Session, 1140th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.1140 (5 August 1964) para 46.
124.
Ibid., para 44.
125.
Repertoire, Supp. 1964–1965 , Chap. 11, p. 195.
126.
Ibid. See also Schick 1968, p. 981.
127.
Franck 2002, pp. 89–90; Greenwood 1987, p. 934.
128.
Baker 1994, p. 104; Greenwood 1987, pp. 934–935; Intoccia 1987, pp. 180–181; McCredie 1987, p. 218.
129.
Greenwood 1987, p. 934; Intoccia 1987, p. 181.
130.
Intoccia 1987, p. 181.
131.
Greenwood 1987, p. 934; Intoccia 1987, p. 182; McCredie 1987, p. 215.
132.
Greenwood 1987, p. 934; Intoccia 1987, pp. 181–182
133.
Greenwood 1987, p. 934. According to another account, two American soldiers died in the bombing and 154 persons were wounded, of which 50–60 were US servicemen (Intoccia 1987, p. 185). See also: The President’s Address to the Nation, 14 April 1986, pp. 1–2 (for mentioning 230 wounded).
134.
The President’s Address to the Nation, 14 April 1986, pp. 1–2.
135.
Intoccia 1987, p. 179; Greenwood 1987, p. 936.
136.
Intoccia 1987, p. 179; McCredie 1987, p. 215. According to Greenwood, the number of civilian casualties was unknown, but press reports at the time spoke of a death-toll of approximately 100 persons and injuries to a greater number. Greenwood 1987, p. 936.
137.
Intoccia 1987, p. 179.
138.
SCOR, 41th Session, 2674th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.2674 (15 April 1986) p. 13.
139.
Ibid., pp. 13–14.
140.
Ibid., p. 17.
141.
Ibid., p. 16.
142.
See infra 10.3.
143.
SCOR, 41th Session, 2674th–2682nd meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.2674–S/PV.2682 (15–21 April 1986).
144.
Ibid., 2682nd meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.2682 (21 April 1986) p. 43.
145.
GA Res. 41/38 (1986).
146.
Greenwood 1987, pp. 933–960; McCredie 1987, pp. 215–242. Dinstein characterized them as ‘defensive armed reprisals’. Dinstein 2005, p. 229. For an elaboration of Greenwood’s opinion, see infra 10.3.
147.
Franck 2002, p. 90.
148.
See supra 6.4.1.
149.
See infra 10.3–10.5.
150.
Baker 1994, pp. 101–102.
151.
The FBI Laboratory 1997, section D.
152.
Ibid.
153.
Baker 1994, pp. 102–103; The FBI Laboratory 1997, section D.
154.
UN Doc. S/26003 (1993); Franck 2002, p. 94.
155.
UN Doc. S/26003 (1993); Franck 2002, p. 94.
156.
Baker 1994, p. 103; Franck 2002, p. 94.
157.
SCOR, 48th Session, 3245th meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.3245 (27 June 1993) pp. 13 (France), 16 (Japan), 21–22 (UK), 22 (Russia), 23 (New Zealand).
158.
Ibid., p. 22.
159.
Ibid., pp. 16–17 (Non-Aligned Countries), 17–18 (Brazil), 23–25 (Spain).
160.
Ibid., p. 21.
161.
Report of Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, p. 2.
162.
Ibid., pp. 229–230.
163.
Ibid., pp. 2–7; Higgins and O'Reilly 2009, pp. 567– 583.
164.
Report of Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, p. 15.
165.
Ibid., p. 204.
166.
Ibid., p. 30.
167.
Ibid., p. 31.
168.
Ibid., p. 207.
169.
Ibid., pp. 207–208. The 2004 conflict involved intense fighting between Georgian forces and South Ossetian militia between 8 and 19 August 2004 (see ibid., pp. 12–15).
170.
Ibid., p. 208.
171.
Ibid.
172.
Ibid., pp. 208–209.
173.
Ibid., p. 209.
174.
Ibid., p. 210.
175.
Ibid., p. 211.
176.
SCOR, 63rd Session, 5953rd meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.5953 (10 August 2008) p. 3; Report of the Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, p. 211.
177.
SCOR, 63rd Session, 5953rd mtg., UN Doc. S/PV.5953 (10 August 2008) p. 4; Report of the Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, pp. 212–213.
178.
Submission by Georgia entitled: ‘Use of Force Issues Arising out of the Russian Federation Invasion of Georgia, 2008’, in Report of Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, p. 186.
179.
SCOR, 63rd Session, 5951st and 5952nd meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.5951 and S/PV.5952 (8 August 2008) p. 5 and p. 3, respectively; Submission by Georgia entitled: ‘Use of Force Issues Arising Out of The Russian Federation Invasion of Georgia, 2008’, in Report of Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, p. 186.
180.
Submission by the Russian Federation entitled: ‘Additional General Remarks on the Conflict in August 2008 on Georgia’s Aggression against South Ossetia in August 2008’, in Report of Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, pp. 188–189.
181.
SCOR, 63rd Session, 5951st meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.5951 (8 August 2008).
182.
Ibid., 5952nd meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.5952 (8 August 2008) p. 7.
183.
Ibid., 5953rd meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.5953 (10 August 2008) p. 6.
184.
Ibid., pp. 10 (France), 11 (UK), 14 (Costa Rica), 15 (Panama).
185.
Ibid., p. 15.
186.
On 2 December 2008, Ambassador Heidi Tagliavini was appointed Head of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia by the Council of the European Union. According to the Mission’s mandate as agreed by the Council, the aim of the fact-finding mission was to investigate the origins and the course of the conflict in Georgia, including with regard to international law, humanitarian law and human rights, and the accusations made in that context (including allegations of war crimes). On 30 September 2009, the results of the investigation were presented in the form of a report to the parties to the conflict, the Council of the European Union, the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe and the United Nations.
187.
Report of Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, pp. 249–250, 262.
188.
Ibid., p. 251.
189.
Ibid.
190.
The report found that despite all the tensions between the conflicting parties in the night of 7–8 August, and although there were Russian troops near the Georgian border north of the Roki tunnel, which had been deployed there for the ‘Kavkaz 2008’ exercise, it could not be verified that they were about to launch an attack on Georgia. Neither could an alleged ‘large-scale incursion of Russian troops into Georgian territory’ starting already in the morning of 7 August 2008 be verified by the Mission, although there were strong indications of some Russian military presence in South Ossetia beyond peacekeepers prior to 8 August 14.30 p.m. Report of Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, pp. 255–256.
191.
Ibid., p. 256.
192.
Ibid., pp. 269, 274–275.
193.
Ibid., p. 274.
194.
Ibid., p. 262.
195.
See infra 10.3–10.5.
196.
The rejection of the arguments of Arab states justifying the 1948 invasion illustrate this restrictive tendency (see supra 8.2.1). The reaction to the actions of the UK and France in the 1956 Sinai Campaign also confirm the trend.
197.
See supra 6.4.1.
198.
See supra 8.4.1, 8.4.2 and 8.4.3.
199.
See supra 8.3.1.
200.
Neff 2005, p. 330.
201.
See supra 8.4.5. Report of Fact-Finding Mission in Georgia 2009, p. 251.
202.
See supra 8.4.1, 8.4.2 and 8.4.3.

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Szabó, K.T. (2011). Self-Defence in State-to-State Conflicts. In: Anticipatory Action in Self-Defence. T.M.C. Asser Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-796-8_8

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