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Self-Defence in Ancient and Medieval Natural-Law

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Anticipatory Action in Self-Defence

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Abstract

This chapter succinctly describes the notion of self-defence in the ancient Greek and Roman conceptions of natural-law. Further, it looks into the early, medieval and reformer Christian theory of natural-law to discern the way in which representative and authoritative writings perceived the temporal dimension and limits of self-defence. The writings of Francisco de Vitoria, Francisco Suarez, Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius are given special attention. The aim is to portray the way war and warfare were understood in this natural-law conception in order to map out the Christian normative framework in which the right of self-defence was acknowledged. The chapter draws conclusions as to the content, temporal dimension and limits of self-defence in this framework.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Also stated supra 1.5.

  2. 2.

    Neff 2005, p. 10; Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 37.

  3. 3.

    For an elaborated analysis on how law was viewed in ancient Greece, see Phillipson 1911, vol. 1, pp. 53−65.

  4. 4.

    Bellamy 2006, pp. 120–121.

  5. 5.

    Also stated supra 1.4.

  6. 6.

    For a thorough analysis of the ‘just war’ tradition and the significance of ‘just causes’, see Bellamy 2006, pp. 5–8, 15–29, 39–40, 126–134; Christopher 2004; Neff 2005, pp. 29–30, 49–57.

  7. 7.

    Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 288, 339–340, 371–372, 385–386.

  8. 8.

    In case of Greece, the time frames under review are the Classical (500–336 bc) and the Hellenistic (336–146 bc) periods. For ancient Rome, the period of the Republic (510–23 bc) and of the Early Empire (23 bc–96 ad) are relevant.

  9. 9.

    Phillipson 1911, vol. 2, p. 167.

  10. 10.

    Aristotle 1959, Book I, Chap. 13, Section 2, p. 139.

  11. 11.

    Aristotle 1968, Book V, Chap. 7, Section 1, p. 295; Phillipson 1911, vol. 1, p. 54.

  12. 12.

    Phillipson 1911, vol. 1, pp. 54–55.

  13. 13.

    Phillipson 1911, vol. 2, p. 195.

  14. 14.

    Phillipson 1911, vol. 2, p. 182.

  15. 15.

    Fetial law was a set of religious norms related to the commencement and conduct of war by Romans. It was developed during the regal period in the seventh century bc and it lasted until the first century ad. 60. Phillipson 1911, vol. 2, pp. 315–316; Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 47.

  16. 16.

    Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 47.

  17. 17.

    Brownlie 1963, p. 4.

  18. 18.

    Phillipson 1911, vol. 2, pp. 181, 325–329.

  19. 19.

    Watson 1993, p. 13.

  20. 20.

    Cicero 1968, Book I, Chaps. 11–12, Sections 36−38, pp. 39−41.

  21. 21.

    Barker 1959, p. 269.

  22. 22.

    Barker 1959, pp. 269–270; Everson 1997, p. 294.

  23. 23.

    Aristotle 1967, Book I, Chap. 1, Sections 8−9, p. 9.

  24. 24.

    Cicero 1968, Book I, Chap. 4, Section 12, pp. 13−15.

  25. 25.

    Aristotle 1967, Book VII, Chap. 13, Section 14−15, p. 611.

  26. 26.

    Cicero 1968, Book I, Chap. 11, Section 35, p. 37.

  27. 27.

    Aristotle 1967, Book VII, Chap. 13, Sections 14−15, p. 611; Cicero 1968, Book I, Chap. 11, Section 38, p. 41.

  28. 28.

    The Peloponnesian War (431−404 bc) was fought between the city–state of Athena and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta.

  29. 29.

    Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, Book I, Chap. 71, reprinted in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 4−5.

  30. 30.

    Cicero 1968, Book I, Chap. 12, Section 38, p. 41. Cicero also advocated the granting of protection for those who laid down their arms and for those who did not participate in the hostilities. Ibid., Book I, Chap. 12, Section 35, p. 37.

  31. 31.

    For instance, the influence of Aristotelian natural-law theory on Thomas Aquinas was thoroughly discussed in Lisska 1996. The same book also makes reference to the work of other early and medieval Christian thinkers who borrowed ideas from the ancient Greek conception of natural-law.

  32. 32.

    Mattox 2006, pp. 73−74.

  33. 33.

    See, for instance, Tertullian, On Idolatry, Chap. 19, in Swift 1983, pp. 41−42.

  34. 34.

    Brownlie 1963, p. 5; Bellamy 2006, p. 21.

  35. 35.

    Bellamy 2006, pp. 23−25; Neff 2005, pp. 46−48.

  36. 36.

    Aurelius Augustinus also known as Augustine of Hippo or Saint Augustine (354–430) was one of the most important figures in the development of Christianity in Europe. His most important works are On Christian Doctrine (397−426), Confessions (397–398) and City of God (?413−426).

  37. 37.

    Bellamy 2006, p. 25.

  38. 38.

    Mattox 2006, p. 74.

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    Augustine, City of God, Book XIX, Chap. 7, reprinted in Fortin et al. 1994, p. 149.

  41. 41.

    Augustine 1955, Book I, 5.12, pp. 44−45. See also Smith 2007, p. 147.

  42. 42.

    Excerpts from Augustine, Letter 47, Section 5, in Mattox 2006, p. 108.

  43. 43.

    Barker 1959, pp. 269−270; Cicero 1968, Book I, Chap. 4, Section 12, pp. 13−15; Everson 1997, p. 294.

  44. 44.

    Mattox 2006, p. 74.

  45. 45.

    Smith 2007, pp. 146−147.

  46. 46.

    Mattox 2006, p. 74.

  47. 47.

    Nussbaum 1947, pp. 23−27.

  48. 48.

    Gregory of Tours was a historian and a bishop and through his work he aimed to popularize Christian faith. Saint Isidore, Archbishop of Seville, not only took further the teachings of Augustine, but also the ideas of Aristotle and other ancient Greek philosophers. Fontane 2000; Mitchell and Wood 2002.

  49. 49.

    Neff 2005, p. 48; Llewellyn 1970, pp. 263−264.

  50. 50.

    Pope Urban II’s speech at Clermont, 27 November 1095, as reported by Robert the Monk, in Laffan 1929, pp. 54−56. The term ‘Holy Land’ usually refers to the historic geographical region comprising ancient Palestine (Concise Oxford Dictionary, 1995).

  51. 51.

    Pope Innocent IV, On Vows and the Fulfilling of Vows, decretal Quod superbis, reprinted in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 152.

  52. 52.

    More on the legacy of the Decretists and the Decretalists in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 104; Bellamy 2006, pp. 34−36.

  53. 53.

    Gratian, Decretum, Part II: Decreti Pars Secunda, causa 23, question II, canon 1, reprinted in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 113.

  54. 54.

    Ibid., question III, canon 5, in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 114.

  55. 55.

    Ibid., canon 7, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 114−115.

  56. 56.

    Ibid., question V, canon 46, in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 119.

  57. 57.

    According to Neff, in the fourteenth century, Giovanni da Legnano, professor of civil law at the University of Bologna, characterized self-defence as a species of ‘particular war’, in other words, a ‘war’ waged by one person on his own behalf, as opposed to a ‘universal war’ waged by the prince and involving the entire community. Neff 2005, p. 60 n. 67.

  58. 58.

    Raymond of Peňafort, Summa de casibus poenitentiae, Part II, Section 18, reprinted in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 138−139.

  59. 59.

    Gratian, question I, in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 110.

  60. 60.

    Ibid., in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 109−110.

  61. 61.

    Peňafort, Section 18, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 133, 140.

  62. 62.

    William of Rennes, Apparatus ad Summam Raymundi, Section 18, reprinted in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 133, 143.

  63. 63.

    This method of teaching was earlier used by Muslim scholastics of Al-Andalus (today Andalusia). The scholastic method was based on the critical analysis of the main work (or works) of a renowned scholar (auctor) and in this way, the students learned to understand and appreciate the theories of the author. Three periods of scholasticism can be distinguished: early scholasticism (eleventh−twelfth century), high scholasticism (thirteenth century) and late scholasticism (fourteenth and early fifteenth century).

  64. 64.

    Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Secunda Secundae, question 91, Articles 1 and 2, and question 94, Articles 2 and 4, in Lisska 1996, pp. 263−266, 272−278.

  65. 65.

    Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 169.

  66. 66.

    Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Part II–II, question 40, Article 1, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 176−177.

  67. 67.

    Ibid., question 10, Article 8, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 192−193.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., question 41, Article 1, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 182−183.

  69. 69.

    Such an author was Bartolus de Sassoferrato (ca.1313−1357), who considered private reprisals for the recovery of property legal if there was no judge available to protect the person. Bartolus de Sassoferrato, Secunda super Digesto novo, ad Dig., 49, 15, 24, n. 9 in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 207. For details on the law of reprisals in the Middle Ages and Bartolus’ work, see Grewe 2000, pp. 116−118. Another author who extensively dealt with the issue of reprisals was Giovanni da Legnano (ca. 1320−1383) in his Tractatus de Bello, de Represaliis et de Duello (1360). See: Legnano 1917, Chaps. cxxii–clxvii, pp. 307−331.

  70. 70.

    Gratian, question I, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 109−110; Peňafort, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 131−133.

  71. 71.

    Aquinas, question 41, Article 1, in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 183.

  72. 72.

    Peňafort, Section 17, in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 134.

  73. 73.

    Neff 2005, p. 59.

  74. 74.

    Many rules of righteous conduct in battle were recorded by Legnano in his Tractatus: Legnano 1917, Chaps. xvii−lviii, pp. 235−268. See also: Keen 1965, pp. 19−22.

  75. 75.

    Pisan, The Book of Deeds of Arms and of Chivalry, Part III, Chap. 12, in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 219.

  76. 76.

    Ibid.

  77. 77.

    Ibid.

  78. 78.

    Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 9.

  79. 79.

    Nussbaum 1947, pp. 53, 58−59.

  80. 80.

    Bellamy 2006, pp. 49−50; Nussbaum 1947, p. 57.

  81. 81.

    Fulgosius, In primam pandectarum partem comentaría, reprinted in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 228−229.

  82. 82.

    Fulgosius, In primam pandectarum partem comentaría, reprinted in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 228−229.

  83. 83.

    Brownlie 1963, pp. 10−11.

  84. 84.

    Vitoria 1991b, p. 313.

  85. 85.

    Brownlie 1963, p. 10 (quoting Balthasar Ayala, De jure et officiis bellicis et disciplina militari libri (On the Law and Duties of War and Military Discipline) Book I, Chap. 2).

  86. 86.

    Machiavelli 2004, Chap. 26, p. 130.

  87. 87.

    Machiavelli 1970, p. 515.

  88. 88.

    Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 251−253; Russell 2009, p. 468.

  89. 89.

    Brownlie 1963, p. 11.

  90. 90.

    Vitoria 1991a, pp. 233, 293.

  91. 91.

    Ibid., pp. 250−252.

  92. 92.

    Ibid., pp. 269−270.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., pp. 285−286.

  94. 94.

    Vitoria 1991b, pp. 302−303.

  95. 95.

    Ibid., p. 300.

  96. 96.

    Ibid., p. 303.

  97. 97.

    Ibid., p. 297.

  98. 98.

    Ibid., p. 304.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., p. 327. At the same time, Vitoria also asserted that ‘even after the victory had been won and property restored to its rightful owners, and peace and security were established, it was lawful to avenge the injury done by the enemy and to teach the enemy a lesson by punishing them for the damage they have done.’ Ibid., p. 305.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., pp. 314−326.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., p. 299.

  102. 102.

    Ibid., p. 300.

  103. 103.

    Ibid., p. 300.

  104. 104.

    Ibid., pp. 299−301.

  105. 105.

    Suárez 1944, Disputation XIII, Section 2, pp. 802−804, 815−816.

  106. 106.

    Ibid., Section 4, pp. 815−817.

  107. 107.

    Ibid., Section 7, pp. 845−846, 850−851.

  108. 108.

    Ibid., Section 2 (1), p. 805.

  109. 109.

    Ibid., Section 1 (5), p. 804.

  110. 110.

    Ibid., Section 1 (4), pp. 802−803.

  111. 111.

    Ibid., Section 1 (6), p. 804.

  112. 112.

    Vitoria 1991b, p. 299; Suarez 1944, Disputation XIII, Section 2 (1), p. 804.

  113. 113.

    The Thirty Years' War (1618−1648) began as a religious conflict between Catholics and reformer Protestants, but ended up involving many other issues, such as territorial annexations and consolidation of power.

  114. 114.

    Nussbaum 1947, p. 94.

  115. 115.

    Gentili 1933, Book I, Chap. 3, p. 15.

  116. 116.

    Ibid., Chap. 9, pp. 38−39.

  117. 117.

    Grotius 1964, Book II, Chap. 1 (ii), p. 171.

  118. 118.

    Nussbaum 1947, p. 2. For Grotius’ importance for international relations theory, see Roelofsen 1990, pp. 96−131. For a succinct summary of his life, see: Holk 1983, pp. 32−39.

  119. 119.

    Grotius 1964, Book I, Chap. 3 (i), p. 91. He also named a third category, mixed wars, which were partly public, partly private.

  120. 120.

    Ibid., Chap. 1 (x), pp. 38−39.

  121. 121.

    Ibid., Book II, Chap. 1 (ii), pp. 171−172.

  122. 122.

    Ibid., Chap. 20 (xlviii), pp. 516−517.

  123. 123.

    Ibid., Chap. 3 (i–ii), pp. 91−92. See also: Haggenmacher 1997, pp. 368−369.

  124. 124.

    Ibid., Chap. 20 (i), p. 462.

  125. 125.

    Ibid., Chap. 1 (ii), p. 172.

  126. 126.

    Ibid., Book III, Chap. 1 (i), p. 599. For an appraisal of Grotius’ Book III, see Draper 1990, pp. 197−199.

  127. 127.

    Roberts 2008, p. 938.

  128. 128.

    Gentili 1933, Book I, Chap. 13, p. 58.

  129. 129.

    Ibid., p. 59.

  130. 130.

    Ibid., Chap. 14, p. 62.

  131. 131.

    Grotius 1964, Book II, Chap. 1 (iii), p. 172.

  132. 132.

    Ibid. Because of this, self-defence was permitted also against a blameless assailant, because the protection of one’s life is more important than the absence of guilt of the attacker.

  133. 133.

    Ibid., Chap. 1 (iv), p. 173.

  134. 134.

    Ibid.

  135. 135.

    Ibid., Chap. 1 (v), p. 173.

  136. 136.

    Ibid., pp. 174−175.

  137. 137.

    Ibid., Book I, Chap. 3 (ii), p. 92. Haggenmacher asserts that Grotius also saw private wars to vindicate one’s right as legal if no legal remedy was available. Haggenmacher 1997, p. 368.

  138. 138.

    Grotius 1964, Book II, Chap. 1 (xvi), p. 184.

  139. 139.

    Ibid.

  140. 140.

    Ibid.

  141. 141.

    Ibid., Chap. 1 (ii), p. 172.

  142. 142.

    Ibid., Chap. 1 (xvi), p. 184.

  143. 143.

    Ibid.

  144. 144.

    Gentili 1933, Book II, Chap. 2, p. 136.

  145. 145.

    Ibid., Book I, Chap. 14, p. 61.

  146. 146.

    Ibid.

  147. 147.

    Ibid., p. 62.

  148. 148.

    Ibid., p. 66.

  149. 149.

    Ibid., p. 62.

  150. 150.

    Ibid., p. 64.

  151. 151.

    Ibid., p. 66.

  152. 152.

    Ibid., Book II, Chap. 2, p. 136.

  153. 153.

    Grotius 1964, Book II, Chap. 1 (xvi), p. 184.

  154. 154.

    Ibid., Chap. 1 (xvii), p. 184.

  155. 155.

    Ibid.

  156. 156.

    Gratian, question I, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 109−110; Aquinas, question 41, Article 1, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 182−183; Pisan, Part III, Chap. 12, in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 219.

  157. 157.

    Grotius 1964, Book II, Chap. 1 (xvi), p. 184.

  158. 158.

    Ibid., Chap. 1 (xvii), p. 184.

  159. 159.

    Ibid., Book II, Chap. 1 (xvi), p. 184.

  160. 160.

    Gentili 1933, Book I, Chap. 14, p. 66.

  161. 161.

    Grotius 1964, Book II, Chap. 1 (xvii), p. 184.

  162. 162.

    Steiger 2001, pp. 184−187.

  163. 163.

    Christianity being the intellectual–religious basis in the Western tradition, its norms affected not only the personal lives of individuals, but also every type of rulership in the European space. Steiger 2001, pp. 184−185.

  164. 164.

    Ibid. Nussbaum explains that the term ‘law of nations’ is more adequate to describe the interrelations of human groups over the centuries before the more modern ‘international law’ system emerged. Nussbaum 1947, pp. 1−2. For the difference between the ‘law of nations’ and present international law, see: Haggenmacher 1997, pp. 369−370.

  165. 165.

    Nussbaum 1947, p. 2.

  166. 166.

    Gratian, question II, canon 1, in Reichberg et al. 2006, p. 113; Aquinas, question 40, in Reichberg et al. 2006, pp. 176−178; Vitoria 1991b, pp. 297, 303; Suárez 1944, Disputation XIII, Section 1 (6), p. 804; Grotius 1964, Book II, Chap. 1 (ii), p. 172, and Chap. 20 (i), p. 462.

  167. 167.

    Gentili 1933, Book II, Chap. 2, p. 172.

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Szabó, K.T. (2011). Self-Defence in Ancient and Medieval Natural-Law. In: Anticipatory Action in Self-Defence. T.M.C. Asser Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-796-8_2

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