Indigenous Claims and Rights Under African Regional Institutions

Ndahinda, Felix Mukwiza

doi:10.1007/978-90-6704-609-1_5

Felix Mukwiza Ndahinda²

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Abstract

The preceding chapters have discursively explored the relatively recent identification of numerous hunter-gatherers and pastoralists as indigenous peoples of Africa under the meaning attributable to this international legal category. The present chapter intends to explore whether and how African political and legal regional bodies accommodate indigenous rights. Since indigenousness is a product of relatively recent developments, the analysis will look at how existing instruments and new dynamics cover the substantive claims for special protection of indigenous rights. The discussion will attempt to examine the possible relevance of the work of African political institutions for indigenous right but, more particularly, focus on human and peoples’ rights bodies.

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Notes

1.
Art. 2 Charter of the Organization of African Unity (OAU Charter), 479 UNTS 39, entered into force 13 September 1963.
2.
M’Baye and Ndiaye 1982, p. 601.
3.
Murray 2004, p. 7.
4.
Ibid., pp. 7–22. See also M’Baye and Ndiaye 1982, pp. 587 et seq.
5.
As in Resolution on Apartheid and/or Racial Discrimination in the Republic of South Africa, Assembly of Heads of State and Government (hereafter, AHSG), 1st Ord. Sess., Cairo/UAR, 17–21 July 1964, AHG/Res. 5 (I); AHG/Res. 6 (I); AHG/Res. 34 (II); AHG/Decl. 2 (XXIII); 27th Ord. Sess., Abuja/Nigeria, 3–5 June 1991, AHG/Decl. 4 (XXVII).
6.
See, e.g., OAU, Resolution[s] on South West Africans on Trial in South Africa, AHSG, 4th Ord. Sess., Kinshasa/Congo, 11–14 September 1967, AHG/Res. 50 (IV); AHG/Res. 86 (XV); Special Resolution on Namibia, AHSG, 19th Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 6–12 June 1983, AHG/Res. 105 (XIX).
7.
See OAU, Resolution on Territories Under Portuguese Domination, AHSG, 2nd Ord. Sess., Accra/Ghana, 21–26 October 1965, AHG/Res. 35 (II).
8.
OAU, Resolution on Southern Rhodesia, AHSG, 2nd Ord. Sess., Accra/Ghana, 21–26 October 1965, AHG/Res. 25 (II); Special Resolution on Sanctions against the Smith Regime, AHSG, 15th Ord. Sess., Khartoum/Sudan 18–22 July 1978, AHG/Res. 89 (XV).
9.
OAU, Resolution on the Creation of a Sub-Regional Office of the Liberation Committee for the So-Called French Somaliland (Djibouti), AHSG, 12th Ord. Sess., Kampala/Uganda, 28 July–1 August 1975, AHG/Res. 74 (XII).
10.
OAU, AHG/Res. 105 (XIX), para 4.
11.
OAU, Resolution[s] on the Question of the Comorian Island of Mayotte, Council of Ministers, 43rd Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 25 February–4 March 1986, AHG/Res. 241 (XXXI); 32nd Ord. Sess., Yaoundé/Cameroon, 8–10 July 1996, AHG/Res. 255 (XXXII).
12.
OAU, Resolution on the So-Called Spanish Sahara, AHSG, 12th Ord. Sess., Kampala/Uganda, 28 July–1 August 1975, AHG/Res. 75 (XII); Resolution on Western Sahara, 19th Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 6–12 June 1983, AHG/Res. 104 (XIX).
13.
OAU, Resolution[s] on the Liberation Committee, AHSG, 1st Ord. Sess., Cairo/UAR, 17–21 July 1964, AHG/Res. 7(I); 2nd Ord. Sess., Accra/Ghana, 21–26 October 1965, AHG/Res. 38 (II); Resolution on Dissolution of the OAU Liberation Committee, AHSG, 30th Ord. Sess., Tunis/Tunisia, 13–15 June, 1994, AHG/Res. 228 (XXX).
14.
OAU, Resolution on the Financing of the South West Africa Case, AHSG, 2nd Ord. Sess., Accra/Ghana, 21–26 October 1965, AHG/Res. 39 (II).
15.
Munya 1999, pp. 558 et seq.
16.
OAU, Resolution on Nigeria, AHSG, 5th Ord. Sess., Algiers/Algeria, 13–16 September 1968, AHG/Res. 54 (V), paras 3, 7; AHSG, 6th Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 6–10 September 1969, AHG/Res. 58/Rev. 1 (VI).
17.
Ibid, note 81.
18.
Murray 2004, p. 14 note 80 (referring to OAU, Decision on Somalia, 66th Ord. Sess., Council of Ministers, Harare/Zimbabwe, 28–31 May 1997, DOC.CM/2004 (LXVI) -D). The Council reaffirmed ‘the sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity of Somalia as one and indivisible State’.
19.
Resolution on the Situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo, 3rd Extra-Ord. Sess., Council of Ministers, Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 5–10 September 1964, ECM/Res. 5(III). See also Van Walraven 1997, pp. 296–298.
20.
OAU, Resolution on Western Sahara, para 2.
21.
Blay 1985, p. 152 (referring to Katanga/Shaba crises (Congo-Zaire), Biafra (Nigeria), Southern Sudan, Ogaden (Ethiopia) and North East Frontier District in Kenya (the latter two are inhabited by Somalis who primarily sought unification of all Somalis under a single Somali state), Eritrea and Tigray provinces of Ethiopia (Eritrea eventually acceded to independence)).
22.
Maluwa 2004, p. 236; OAU, Declaration on the Involvement of the United States Administration in the Internal Affairs of the People’s Republic of Angola, AHSG, 22nd Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 28–30 July 1986, AHG/Decl. 1 (XXII).
23.
Naldi 1999, pp. 6 et seq.
24.
Udombana 2002a, pp. 1211–1212; Kiwanuka 1998, pp. 96–97.
25.
Maluwa 2004, p. 236.
26.
Murray 2004, pp. 16–17.
27.
Art. III(3) OAU Charter.
28.
Art. VIII OAU Charter; OAU, Resolution on Border Disputes among African States, para 2.
29.
Ratner 1996, p. 595. See also Udombana 2002b, p. 76; Blay 1985, pp. 151 et seq.
30.
Doebbler 2003, pp. 10–11. On the process of the adoption of the African Charter and its significance, see, e.g., M’baye 1992; Umozurike 1997; Ouguergouz 1993.
31.
Murray 2004, p. 1. On a related analysis, see Ndahinda 2007.
32.
See AU, The Durban Declaration in Tribute to the Organization of African Unity and on the Launching of the African Union, 10–12 July 2002, AU Doc. ASS/AU/Decl. 2(1).
33.
Doebbler 2003, p. 16.
34.
Constitutive Act of the African Union, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/23.15 (2001) (hereafter, AU Act or the Act).
35.
Nmehielle 2003, p. 433.
36.
Art. 3(h) of the AU Act.
37.
Para 1 of the preamble and Arts. 3(a), 3(k), 4(c), 17(1) AU Act.
38.
Art. 4(b) AU Act. See also Udombana 2002b, p. 76.
39.
Udombana 2002a, pp. 1188–1189.
40.
OAU, Resolution on the Sahara under Spanish Domination, Council of Ministers, 21st Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 17–24 May 1973, CM/Res. 301 (XXI), para 5 (emphasis added). The concept ‘indigenous’ further appears in two OAU Resolution[s] on the Palestinian Question, Council of Ministers, 42nd Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 10–17 July 1985, CM/Res. 1000 (XLII), para 4; and Council of Ministers, 45th Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 23–28 February 1987, CM/Res. 1086 (XLV), para 2(c).
41.
See several references to ‘minority’ in Special Summit of African Union on HIV/Aids, Tuberculosis and Malaria (ATM): Socio-Cultural Determinants and Impact, Abuja/Nigeria, 2–4 May 2006, SP/PRC/ATM/3 (I). See also AU, Solemn Declaration on a Common African Defence and Security Policy, AHSG, 2nd Extra-Ord. Sess., Sirte/Libya, 28 February 2004. In AU, The Common African Position on the Proposed Reform of the United Nations: ‘The Ezulwini Consensus’, Executive Council, 7th Extra-Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 7–8 March 2005, Ext/EX.CL/2 (VII), para A(ii), the organization recommended UN and Member States to ‘give particular consideration to all the other recommendations, especially recommendation 14 regarding development of frameworks for minority rights …’.
42.
Declaration on a Code of Conduct for Inter-African Relations, AHSG, 30th Ord. Sess., Tunis/Tunisia, 13–15 June 1994, AHG/Decl. 2 (XXX).
43.
Ibid., para 4.
44.
Abuja Declaration, First Africa-South America Summit, 26–30 November 2006, Abuja/Nigeria, ASA/Summit/doc.01(I), para 15, http://www.iss.org.za/uploads/AFRISOUTDECL.PDF, Accessed 29 March 2010. See also AU, Universal Access to Comprehensive Sexual and Reproductive Health Services in Africa: Macro-Economics of Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH), Special Session of the African Union Conference of Ministers of Health, Maputo/Mozambique, 18–22 September 2006, Sp/EXP/CAMH/3c(I), para 89.
45.
OAU, Cultural Charter for Africa, adopted in Port Louis/Mauritius, 5 July 1976, entered into force on 19 September 1990, AU Doc. 0014. As of October 2007, the Cultural Charter was ratified by 34 of the 53 AU Member States (ratified Gabon on 20 August 2007). See also OAU, Resolution Relating to the Cultural Charter for Africa, AHSG, 13th Ord. Sess., Port Louis/Mauritius, 2–6 July 1976, AHG/Res. 82 (XIII).
46.
The African Charter refers to: ‘African Culture’ (Art. 6(2)(a); ‘African cultures’ (Art. 30); ‘National and African Cultural and Social realities’ (Art. 6(1)(c)); and to ‘cultural diversity and national identity’ (Arts. 3–5).
47.
Art. 1(c) Cultural Charter.
48.
Ibid., Art. 3.
49.
Ibid., Art. 4. Art. 5 Cultural Charter adds that ‘assertion of national identity must not be at the cost of impoverishing or subjecting various cultures within the State’.
50.
See Mutua 1994–1995; El-Obaid and Atua 1996.
51.
Art. 7 Cultural Charter.
52.
Ibid., para 8 of the preamble.
53.
Ibid., para 14 of the preamble.
54.
Ibid., Art. 6(2)(c) (provision on ‘basic principles governing a National Cultural Policy’).
55.
Charter for African Cultural Renaissance, adopted by the 6th Ord. Sess. of the Assembly, held in Khartoum, Sudan, 24 January 2006, AU Doc 0034.
56.
See http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/treaties.htm. Accessed 21 May 2008.
57.
Using, for instance, Art. 60 of the ACHPR, allowing the ACHPR to draw inspiration for ‘[O]ther instruments adopted by the United Nations and by African countries in the field of human and peoples’ rights’. For elaborations thereon, see Essien 2000, p. 110.
58.
OAU, Declaration of the Heads of State and Government of the Organization of African Unity on the Cultural Aspects in the Lagos Plan of Action, AHSG, 21st Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 18–20 July 1985, OAU Doc. AHG/Decl. 2(XXI). See also OAU, Resolution on the Lagos Plan of Action and the Final Act of Lagos, AHSG, 19th Ord. Sess., Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 6–12 June 1983, AHG/Res. 115 (XIX).
59.
OAU Doc. AHG/Decl. 2(XXI), para 2.
60.
Ibid., para 2(b).
61.
OAU, Monrovia Declaration of Commitment of the Heads of State and Government, of the Organization of African Unity on Guidelines and Measures for National and Collective Self-Reliance in Social and Economic Development for the Establishment of a New International Economic Order, AHSG, 16th Ord. Sess., Monrovia/Liberia, 17–20 July 1979, AHG/ST. 3 (XVI) Rev. 1.
62.
OAU, Lagos Plan of Action for the Economic Development of Africa 1980–2000, AHSG, 2nd Extra-Ord. Sess., Lagos/Nigeria, 28–29 April 1980, http://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDF, accessed 23 May 2008, para 3.
63.
AU, African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, adopted in Maputo, 11 July 2003, AU Doc. 0029 (hereafter, Conservation and Natural Resources Convention). The 2003 Maputo Convention revised OAU’s African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, adopted in Algiers, 15 September 1968, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/24.1.
64.
Art. XIV(1)(b) Conservation and Natural Resources Convention.
65.
Ibid., Art. III.
66.
See ibid., Annex 2 (on conservation areas) under the title: ‘Protected Landscape/Seascape: protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation’. See also Viljoen 2007, p. 285.
67.
Art. XVII Conservation and Natural Resources Convention.
68.
See Sect. 4.3.1.
69.
NEPAD, Framework Document, para 1.
70.
Nmehielle 2003, pp. 428–430; Baimu 2002, p. 304.
71.
Manby 2004, p. 988.
72.
Ibid., p. 988.
73.
Busumtwi-Sam 2006, p. 71.
74.
Baimu 2002, p. 308.
75.
Murray 2004, pp. 264–266.
76.
Manby 2004, pp. 1001–1023.
77.
Gathii 2003, p. 183.
78.
See, e.g., Murray 2004, pp. 235 et seq.; Udombana 2003, pp. 71 et seq.; Baimu 2002, pp. 301–319.
79.
NEPAD, Framework Document, para 71. See also Manby 2004, p. 989.
80.
Manby 2004, pp. 1001–1005.
81.
On NEPAD and related processes, see Murray 2004, pp. 237 et seq.
82.
NEPAD, Framework Document, para 49. See also comments thereon in Baimu 2002, pp. 305 et seq.
83.
NEPAD, Framework Document, para 80. Baimu 2002, pp. 306.
84.
NEPAD, Framework Document, para 178.
85.
There are several unspecified references to peoples of Africa as in paras 14, 50–58 (under the heading: ‘appeal to the Peoples of Africa’), and 178.
86.
NEPAD, Framework Document, paras 140–141.
87.
The African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM), 16 September 2003, para 2.
88.
APRM, para 1.
89.
Ibid., para 2. For an analysis of the APM, see Akokpari 2004.
90.
For more on APRM, see http://www.aprm-international.org/. Accessed 30 March 2010.
91.
APRM 2006, p. 112.
92.
Ibid.
93.
Ibid., p. 241.
94.
APRM 2005, p. 15.
95.
Ibid.
96.
Ibid., p. 144 (Appendix 1).
97.
Ibid.
98.
APRM 2007, paras 147–148.
99.
Ibid.
100.
Ibid., para 157.2.
101.
OAU, Solemn Declaration on the Conference on Security, Stability Development and Co-operation in Africa (CSSDCA or CSSDCA Solemn Declaration), AHSG, 36th Ord. Sess., Lome/Togo, 10–12 July, 2000, AHG/Decl. 4 (XXXVI). See also Murray 2004, pp. 28–30.
102.
CSSDCA Solemn Declaration, para 11. See also Manby 2004, pp. 1022–1023. Furthermore, OAU, Memorandum of Understanding on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa (CSSDCA-MOU), adopted by the First Standing Heads of State and Government CSSDCA, 8–9 July 2002 Durban, http://www.africa-union.org/Special_Programs/CSSDCA/cssdca-memorandumofunderstanding.pdf. Accessed 30 June 2008.
103.
CSSDCA Solemn Declaration, calabash (h) on stability.
104.
Ibid, on political parties, under key performance indicators.
105.
CSSDCA-MOU, para 8.
106.
This is the terminology used to refer to the various sections of the instrument.
107.
See, for instance, CSSDCA-MOU, section III on ‘Key performance indicators’, where specific deadlines are given for actions to be taken on security, stability, development and cooperation.
108.
See CSSDCA-MOU, section V.
109.
Ibid., para 6.
110.
As in para 10 on security; where it is affirmed that ‘Africa’s security and that of its Member States are inseparably linked with the security of all African peoples’.
111.
Manby 2004, p. 1023.
112.
See OAU, African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC), OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (1990), entered into force on 29 November 1999.
113.
ACRWC preamble, para 7.
114.
Art. 3 ACRWC.
115.
Ibid., Art. 1(3). This provision is elaborated in Art. 21.
116.
Ibid., Art. 11(2)(d). Art. 12 (right of the child to participate in cultural and artistic life).
117.
Ibid., Art. 25.
118.
Ibid., Art. 31.
119.
See ibid., Arts. 32–45, for provisions on the monitoring mechanism.
120.
Arts. 28(c), 30, 34 Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights. The statute is part of the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, adopted on 1 July 2008, 11th Ord. Sess. AHSG, AU Doc 0035. As of July 2009, the Protocol had not yet entered into force, having only gathered one (Libya) of the required 15 instruments of ratification.
121.
AU, African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance, adopted by the 8th Ord. Sess., AHSG, Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, 30 January 2007, AU Doc. 0033 (hereafter, Charter on Democracy).
122.
See Alemu 2007, pp. 22–23.
123.
Art. 2(1) Charter on Democracy.
124.
See ibid., Art. 8. The provision is complemented by Art. 43.
125.
Ibid., Arts. 44–45. See also Alemu 2007, pp. 32–34.
126.
OAU, Declaration on Democracy, Political, Economic and Corporate Governance, AHSG, 38th Ord. Sess., Durban/South Africa, 8 July 2002, AHG/235 (XXXVIII) Annex I (hereafter, Declaration on Democracy).
127.
Declaration on Democracy, para 3.
128.
Ibid., para 10.
129.
See OAU/AU, African Model Law, referred to under Sect. 4.3.1.
130.
For an account of the process of the adoption of the African Model Law, see Ekpere 2000, pp. 8–10.
131.
OAU, Report of the Secretary-General on the OAU Programme for the Protection of Community Rights and Control of Access to Biological Resources–DOC. CM/2057(LXVIII) ADD.1., Council of Ministers, 68th Ord. Sess., 4–7 June 1998, Ouagadougou/Burkina Faso, CM/DEC. 428 (LXVIII).
132.
OAU, Decision on the Declaration of the Period 2001–2010 as the OAU Decade for African Traditional Medicine, AHSG, 37th Ord. Sess., 9–11 July 2001, Lusaka/Zambia AHG/Dec. 5 (XXXVII), para 6(a).
133.
See preamble of the African Model Law, para 8. See also UNEP-WCMC 2003, p. 45.
134.
See, for instance, African Model Law, Art. 2(iv) (on scope), Art. 16 (Recognition of the Rights of Local and Indigenous Communities), and Art. 17.
135.
See ibid., Art. 1 (on Definitions and Scope), para 6.
136.
Ibid., para 7.
137.
Ibid., para 12.
138.
Ibid., Art. 17 further provides that ‘the State recognizes and protects the community rights that are specified in Art. 16 as they are enshrined and protected under the norms, practices and customary law found in, and recognized by, the concerned local and indigenous communities, whether such law is written or not’.
139.
Ibid., Art. 57. However, the legislation provides for a ‘Technical Advisory Body to support the work of the National Inter-Sectoral Co-ordination Body’ (Art. 62).
140.
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, adopted on 26 June 1981, OAU Doc., CAB/LEG/67/3 Rev. 5, entered into force on 21 October 1986 (hereafter, African Charter).
141.
Maluwa 2004, p. 234.
142.
See M’baye 1992; and Umozurike 1997.
143.
Naldi 2002, p. 6 (quoting B.O. Okere).
144.
Ibid.
145.
On the institution, mandate and functioning of the ACHPR, see Arts. 30–61 African Charter. Currently, all 53 Member States of the AU are parties to the African Charter.
146.
See Murray 2000, p. 11; paraphrasing Art. 45 African Charter.
147.
Art. 45(1)(a) African Charter.
148.
Viljoen 2007, pp. 369 et seq. See also Mugwanya 2001.
149.
Viljoen 2007, pp. 392–401. The establishment of working groups is not specifically provided for in the African Charter but Rule No. 28 provides that the ACHPR may establish committees or working groups. See ACHPR, Rules of Procedure of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted on 6 October 1995, http://www.achpr.org/english/_info/rules_en.html. Accessed 2 September 2008.
150.
Viljoen 2007, pp. 402–405.
151.
Art. 45(2) African Charter.
152.
Ibid., Arts. 47–54, and 55–59.
153.
Viljoen 2007, p. 362. The missions are conducted in accordance with Art. 46 African Charter which empowers the ACHPR to ‘resort to any appropriate method of investigation’.
154.
Art. 45(3) African Charter.
155.
See Murray 2000; Essien 2000; Odinkalu and Christensen 1998.
156.
Naldi 2002, p. 10.
157.
Ibid.
158.
Ibid., p. 11.
159.
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People's Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and People's Rights, adopted on 9 June 1998, OAU Doc. OAU/LEG/EXP/AFCHPR/PROT (III), entered into force on 25 January 2004 (hereafter, African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights Protocol).
160.
Viljoen 2007, pp. 424 et seq. For more on the Court’s jurisdiction, van der Mei 2005.
161.
Ibid., pp. 424–428.
162.
On the merger process, see Wright 2006; Viljoen 2007, pp. 418 et seq. See also AU, Decision on the Election of Judges of the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Doc. EX.CL/241 (VIII)), AHSG, 6th Ord. Sess., Khartoum/Sudan on 23–24 January 2006, Assembly/AU/Dec.100 (VI). On Arusha as the seat of the Court, see AU, Activity Report of the Court for 2006, AHSG, 8th Ord. Sess., 29–30 January 2007, Addis Ababa/Ethiopia, Assembly/AU/8 (VIII), para 10.
163.
AU, Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union, adopted in Maputo, on 11 July 2003, AU Doc. 0027. See also Coalition for an Effective African Court on Human and Peoples Rights (CEAC), ‘New African Court Emerges at the 11th AU Summit’, http://www.africancourtcoalition.org/editorial.asp?page_id=162. Accessed 4 September 2008.
164.
Udombana 2002–2003; Viljoen and Baimu 2004, pp. 252–255.
165.
See AU, Decision on the Merger of the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Court of Justice of the African Union-ASSEMBLY/AU/6 (V), AHSG, 5th Ord. Sess., 4–5 July 2005, Sirte/Libya, Assembly/AU/Dec.83 (V).
166.
AU, Decision on the Single Legal Instrument on the Merger of the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the African Court of Justice-DOC. ASSEMBLY/AU/13 (XI), AHSG, 11th Ord. Sess., 30 June–1 July 2008, Sharm El-Sheikh/Egypt, Assembly/AU/Dec.196 (XI). The Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (ACJHR Protocol) consists of 9 provisions and an annexed Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (ACJHR Statute) consists of 60 provisions. See also Mubiala 2005, pp. 102–104.
167.
Art. 2(1) ACJHR Statute.
168.
Ibid., Art. 28(c). The statute provides that the 16 judges of the Court will equally be divided into the Court’s General Affairs Section and Human Rights Section (Arts. 3(1), 16 ACJHR Statute).
169.
See ibid., Arts. 43(6), 46(4)-(5).
170.
Illustratively, Art. 28(c) ACJHR Statute on the Court’s competence in human rights matters specifically includes ‘interpretation and the application of … the Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa …’ .
171.
For a related analysis, see Juma 2007.
172.
Viljoen 2001, p. 20.
173.
Heyns 2003–2004, pp. 687–690, provides a good summary of Arts. 2–14 African Charter.
174.
Duties are listed after peoples’ rights in Arts. 27–29 African Charter. Duties are owed to ‘family and society, the State and other legally recognized communities and the international community’.
175.
Murray and Wheatley 2003, pp. 218 et seq.
176.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, pp. 72 et seq.
177.
See Arts. 19–24 African Charter. See also Umozurike 1983.
178.
Viljoen 2007, p. 242.
179.
Kiwanuka 1998, p. 82.
180.
UN Doc. E/CN.4/SUB.2/404/Rev. 1, para 269.
181.
See Skurbaty 2000; Alston 2001; Cassese 1995; Summers 2007; Anaya 2004; Thornberry 2002; Van Boven 1995.
182.
See UN Doc. E/CN.4/SUB.2/404/Rev. 1, paras 267–279.
183.
Ibid., para 274 in fine; See also Kiwanuka 1998, pp. 91–95.
184.
UN Doc. E/CN.4/SUB.2/404/Rev. 1, para 276.
185.
Ibid., para 279.
186.
Kiwanuka 1998, pp. 86 et seq.
187.
Ibid., pp. 100–101.
188.
See para 1 of the preamble and Arts. 3(a) and (k), 4(c), 17(1) AU Constitutive Act (referred to in Sect. 5.2.1). Reference to ‘the people of Africa’ (in singular) can be found, among others, in NEPAD, Framework Document, para 123.4; CSSDCA-MOU, calabash I(f); Art. 6(c) Convention for the Elimination of Mercenarism in Africa, Libreville/Gabon, 3 July 1977, CM/817(XXIX), Annex II; OAU, Declaration and Plan of Action on Drug Control Abuse and Illicit Drug Trafficking in Africa, AHSG, 32nd Ord. Sess., Yaoundé/Cameroon, 8–10 July 1996, AHG/Decl. 2 (XXXII), para 11; Declaration on the Principles Governing Democratic Elections in Africa, OAU/AU, AHSG, 38th Ord. Sess., Durban/South Africa, 8 July 2002, AHG/Decl. 1 (XXXVIII), para 9; AU, Declaration on the Review of the Millennium Declaration and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), AHSG, 5th Ord. Sess., Sirte/Libya, 4–5 July 2005, Assembly/AU/Decl. 1 (V), para 2; Decision on a Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, OAU, AHSG, 28th Ord. Sess., Dakar/Senegal, 29 June–1 July 1992, AHG/Decl. 1 (XXVIII), para 2; AU, Decision on the Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI)-Doc. EX.CL/239 (VIII), Executive Council, 8th Ord. Sess., Khartoum/Sudan, 16–21 January 2006, EX.CL/Dec.259 (VIII), para 2.
189.
As in OAU, AHSG, 15th Ord. Sess., Khartoum/Sudan, 18–22 July 1978, AHG/Res. 88(XV), AHG/Res. 89(XV) and AHG/Res. 89(XV), respectively; Resolution on Zimbabwe, AU, AHSG, 11th Ord., Sess., Sharm El-Sheikh/Egypt, 30 June–1 July 2008, Assembly/AU/Res. 1 (XI), para 6 of the preamble.
190.
Nwobike 2005, p. 139; Thornberry 2002, pp. 247–264; Murray 2001, pp. 18–19.
191.
See Murray and Wheatley 2003, pp. 226 et seq.; Thornberry 2002, pp. 255–258; Bojosi 2006, pp. 382–406.
192.
ACHPR, Advisory Opinion (2007), para 24.
193.
See ACHPR, Katangese Peoples' Congress v. Zaire, previously invoked under section "Self-Determination of Claimant African Indigenous Peoples" in Chap. 4.
194.
Ibid., paras 1–2.
195.
Ibid., para 3.
196.
Ibid., para 4.
197.
Ibid., para 6.
198.
Ibid.
199.
This consideration was made under Art. 13(1) African Charter.
200.
See Okafor 2002.
201.
As in Summers 2007, pp. 266–267; Okafor 2002, pp. 41 et seq. The latter author analysed the Katanga and the Quebec Secession cases as somehow implying a right to secession.
202.
See Lemarchand 1962, p. 410 note 24. These groupings included: ‘the Groupement des Associations Mutuelles de l’Empire Lunda, the Association des Baluba du Katanga, the Fédération des Tribus du Haut Katanga, the Association des Basonge, the Association des Bena Marunga, the Association des Minungu and several other tribal associations’.
203.
This is the interpretation given to the statement that ‘Katanga is obliged to exercise a variant of self-determination that is compatible with the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Zaire’ in Murray and Wheatley 2003, p. 233.
204.
Lemarchand 1962 (elaborating on the various ingredients of Katanga’s secessionist conflict in the 1960 s). See also Islam 1985, p. 213.
205.
See, for instance, Arts. 73–74 UN Charter.
206.
See Lemarchand 1962; Hastings 1962; Islam 1985, pp. 211–221.
207.
Even the title of the Communication refers to ‘Katangese Peoples’.
208.
ICG 2006, p. 5. The report shows persistent socio-political crisis in Katanga and the linkages between past and present discourses on the province’s differential identity (or identities).
209.
ACHPR, Democratic Republic of Congo v. Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Communication 227/1999 (2006), para 8.
210.
Ibid (Art. 19 is on equality of all peoples and prohibition of the domination of a people by another).
211.
Ibid., paras 68–98.
212.
Ibid., para 6.
213.
Ibid., para 68. In para 77, the ACHPR found a ‘violation of the rights of the peoples of the Democratic Republic of Congo to their unquestionable and inalienable right to self-determination provided for by Article 20 of the African Charter’. (Emphasis added). See also para 87 (referring to ‘killings perpetrated against the peoples of the eastern province of the Complainant State’ and ‘violation of Congolese peoples’ rights to cultural development guaranteed by Article 22 of the African Charter’. (Emphases added)).
214.
Ibid., para 95.
215.
Viljoen 2007, p. 243, suggests that the ACHPR ‘clearly refers to the rights of all (affected) Congolese—the ‘people’ of Congo’.
216.
ACHPR, The Social and Economic Rights Action Center and the Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria, Communication No. 155/96 (2001) (hereafter, SERAC and CESR v. Nigeria).
217.
For an elaborate discussion of the Communication and the resulting Decision, see Oloka-Onyango 2002–2003, pp. 866 et seq.
218.
SERAC and CESR v. Nigeria, paras 1–9.
219.
Ibid., paras 1, 30, 62.
220.
For relevant literature, see Nwobike 2005, p. 139; Viljoen 2007, p. 246; Murray and Wheatley 2003, p. 227; Oloka-Onyango 2002–2003, pp. 886 et seq.
221.
SERAC and CESR v. Nigeria, para 58.
222.
Ibid., para 55.
223.
Such as Arts. 8(2)(b), 25–29, 32 UN Declaration.
224.
Ibid., as in Arts. 10, 11, 19, 28, 29 32.
225.
SERAC and CESR v. Nigeria, para 52.
226.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 18; ACHPR and IWGIA 2006, p. 16.
227.
ACHPR, Malawi African Association and Others v. Mauritania, Communication Nos. 54/91, 61/91, 98/93, 164/97–196/97 and 210/98 (2000).
228.
Ibid., paras 141–142.
229.
Ibid., paras 1–27.
230.
Ibid., para 142.
231.
Ibid. See also Odinkalu 2001, p. 346, for a reference thereon.
232.
Malawi African Association and Others v. Mauritania, para 140. It appears however from the reading of para 29, and the conclusion of the decision that Art. 23 was not raised by the complainants.
233.
Ibid., para 138.
234.
ACHPR, Dawda Jawara v. The Gambia, Communication Nos. 147/95 and 149/96 (2000).
235.
Ibid., paras 17 and 73.
236.
Ibid., para 73.
237.
On this case, see also Bojosi 2006, p. 402.
238.
ACHPR, Legal Resources Foundation v. Zambia, Communication No. 211/98 (2001), para 73.
239.
Ibid., para 2.
240.
Ibid.
241.
Ibid., para 3.
242.
Ibid., para 46 (emphasis added). At issue was Art. 23 of the Constitution of Zambia (Amendment) Act, 1996 (No. 18 of 1996), entitled Protection from Discrimination on the Ground of Race, etc., providing in para 1 that: ‘Subject to clauses (4), (5) and (7), no law shall make any provision that is discriminatory either of itself or in its effect’.
243.
See the reference above to Legal Resources Foundation v. Zambia, para 73.
244.
ACHPR, Antoine Bissangou v. Republic of Congo, Communication No. 253/2002 (2006).
245.
Ibid., paras 1, 82.
246.
Ibid., para 81.
247.
Ibid., para 82.
248.
Ibid.
249.
ACHPR, Ilesanmi v. Nigeria, Communication No. 268/2003 (2005).
250.
Ibid., para 47.
251.
Ibid., para 40.
252.
See Konings and Nyamnjoh 1997; Konings and Nyamnjoh 2000; Déclaration prononcée par le Congrès anglophone réuni a Buea, 2–3 April 1993, http://www.politique-africaine.com/numeros/pdf/051139.pdf. Accessed 18 September 2008.
253.
See ACHPR, Dr. Gumne & Members of the SCNC and SCAPO v. Cameroon, Communication 266/2003, http://southerncameroonsig.typepad.com/ig/images/ACHPR.pdf. Accessed 18 September 2008.
254.
See Konings and Nyamnjoh 1997, pp. 214 et seq.
255.
Ibid., p. 207.
256.
Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Judgment of 2 December 1963, ICJ Reports 1963, pp. 15–29, at pp. 21 et seq. See also Flemming 1964.
257.
See UN Resolution on The Future of the Trust Territory of the Cameroons under the United Kingdom Administration’, GA Res. 1608 (XV), UN GAOR, 15th Sess, 994th plen. mtg., 21 April 1961.
258.
Dr. Gumne & Members of the SCNC and SCAPO v. Cameroon, para 119.
259.
Ibid., para 11.
260.
See Migeod 1924, for an early account of ‘tribal’ differences in British (Northern and Southern) Cameroons.
261.
See Konings and Nyamnjoh 1997, p. 210.
262.
Konings and Nyamnjoh 2000, p. 10.
263.
Dr. Gumne & Members of the SCNC and SCAPO v. Cameroon, para 150.
264.
See ibid., paras 159–306. See also Legal Argument in International Law for Independence for the Southern Cameroons, http://www.southerncameroonsig.org/files/legal_argument_for_southern_cameroons.pdf. Accessed 18 September 2008; Arts. 19, 20(1), 21(1), 22(1), 23(1), 24 African Charter.
265.
For more on that case, see Gumne & Others v. Attorney General of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Suit No. FHC/ABJ/CS/30/2002, http://southerncameroonsig.typepad.com/abuja.pdf. Accessed 22 September 2008. See also Enonchong 2002, p. 246.
266.
See: Kevin Mgwanga Gumne et al. v. Cameroon, ACHPR, Communication 266/2003 (2009).
267.
Ibid., paras 190–191.
268.
ACHPR 1996/1997, Annex VIII.
269.
ACHPR 1996/1997, section V, 3 (12) (emphasis added).
270.
Ibid., section VI in fine (emphasis added).
271.
ACHPR 2007, Annex III, para 6 (emphasis added).
272.
Ibid., para 3. Similarly, see para 34(5). In the Resolution on the Situation of Human Rights in the Darfur Region in Sudan, 38th Ord. Sess., Banjul/The Gambia, 21 November–5 December 2005, EX.CL/279 (IX), Annex III, para 6 of the preamble, the ACHPR expresses its deep concern over the ‘continued depopulation of vast areas in the region of their indigenous owners’ (emphasis added).
273.
ACHPR 2007, para 151 (emphasis added). The ACHPR refers to the ‘people of Sudan’ and the ‘people of Darfur’ in the same report.
274.
Art. 60 African Charter.
275.
Ibid., Art. 61.
276.
See The Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua. The decision found violations of (communal) property rights of the community through state concessions to logging companies.
277.
Case of the Saramaka People v. Suriname, Judgment, 28 November 2007, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. (Ser. C) No. 172. The case upheld violations of communal property rights of the Saramaka and non-respect by the state of the obligation to obtain free, prior and informed consent of the group in granting concessions for development projects.
278.
Ibid. See paras 77–86 for an elaborate discussion on the differentiation.
279.
Ibid., para 79.
280.
Ibid., para 86. See also Brunner 2008.
281.
‘African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Message on 9th August—International Day of World's Indigenous Peoples’, http://iwgia.synkron.com/graphics/Synkron-Library/. Accessed 25 September 2008.
282.
On the rise of indigenousness in Africa, see generally Sect. 3.2 supra.
283.
For more on this, see ‘A brief history of the ACHPR Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities in Africa’, http://www.iwgia.org/sw25115.asp. Accessed 23 September 2008.
284.
See IWGIA 1999, para 21.3.
285.
ACHPR, Resolution on the Rights of Indigenous Populations/Communities in Africa, p. 14. The exact title is ‘Working Group of Experts on the Rights of Indigenous Populations/Communities in Africa’.
286.
Ibid., para c.
287.
Ibid.
288.
Ibid.
289.
See ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 11. The group comprised three members of the ACHPR, three experts from (claimant) indigenous communities in Africa and one independent expert (from IWGIA). The mandate of the Working Group was twice renewed for a two-year period, as evidenced by the two Resolution[s] on the Composition and Renewal of the Mandate of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities in Africa, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 38th Ord. Sess., Banjul/The Gambia, 21 November–5 December 2005; and 42nd Ord. Sess., Brazzaville/Republic of Congo, 14–28 November 2007.
290.
See ACHPR and IWGIA 2005. The creation of a Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities in Africa is clearly inspired by both the UNWGIP and the name of one of the most active sponsors of the endeavour, namely the International Working Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA).
291.
ACHPR, Resolution on the Adoption of the ‘Report of the African Commission’s Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities’, 17th Annual Activity Report, 34th Ord. Sess., Banjul/The Gambia, 6–20 November 2003, ACHPR/Res. 65(XXXIV)03, p. 53.
292.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, pp. 14–104.
293.
ACHPR/Res. 51(XXVIII)00, para 1 (emphasis added). It reads that the ACHPR resolves to ‘[e]stablish a working group of experts on the rights of indigenous or ethnic communities in Africa’.
294.
For instance, it is already absent in the 2003 Resolution adopting the Working Group’s report.
295.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 12.
296.
Ibid., p. 79. The said-provisions are: Arts. 2 (equality); 3 (equal protection of the law); 5 (human dignity); 17 (language and culture); and 19–24 (peoples’ rights).
297.
For studies extensively referring to the report, see Viljoen 2007, pp. 283–283; Bojosi 2006, pp. 391–393.
298.
See ACHPR, Advisory Opinion (2007).
299.
Unless terminological usages are meant as a tactical move to gain support from states and other actors (a support that could not be secured through uses of alternative terms such as ‘peoples’).
300.
See ACHPR/Res. 65(XXXIV)03.
301.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2007a.
302.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2008a.
303.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2008b.
304.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2007b.
305.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2008c.
306.
As indicated in, for instance, the Progress Report of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities, 42nd Sess. November 2007, http://www.iwgia.org/graphics/Synkron-Library/, accessed 10 August 2009; Research and Information Visits were conducted in the Central African Republic, Uganda and Gabon. Other missions were planned for Burkina Faso, Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania.
307.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2008d, p. 22.
308.
See, for instance, the 2007 Report on Pygmies in the Republic of Congo.
309.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 12.
310.
Ibid.
311.
See, for instance, Twenty-Second Activity Report of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, para 106, where the ACHPR gratefully acknowledges that ‘DANIDA [the Danish International Development Agency] continues to support the activities of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations/Communities through the International Working Group on Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) … The European Union, through the International Labour Organization (ILO) is also supporting the activities of the WGIP’.
312.
ACHPR and IWGIA 2005, p. 12.
313.
As reflected in AU, Assembly/AU/Dec.141 (VIII).

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Ndahinda, F.M. (2011). Indigenous Claims and Rights Under African Regional Institutions. In: Indigenousness in Africa. T.M.C. Asser Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-609-1_5

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