Skip to main content

High School Dropouts in the United States

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
School Dropout and Completion

Abstract

One of the major educational challenges in virtually all industrialised nations is raising the education level of the workforce. This includes getting more students to complete upper secondary school or what is referred to as ‘high school’ in the United States. Completing high school is increasingly viewed as a minimal requirement for entry into the labour market and for further, post-secondary education. In fact, with the economy generating an increasing number of jobs that require at least some post-secondary schooling, students who earn no more than a high school diploma will most likely have diminishing economic prospects in the future economy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    A course credit is known as a Carnegie unit and represents the credit received for completing a 1-year course.

  2. 2.

    Based on Common Core Data. Retrieved February 7, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/bat/output.asp

  3. 3.

    See Defining and Calculating Event Dropout Rates Using the CCD. Retrieved July 20, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/dropout05/DefiningAndCalculating.asp

  4. 4.

    See Defining and Calculating Dropout and Completion Rates Using the CPS. Retrieved July 20, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/dropout05/DefiningDropoutAndCompletion.asp

  5. 5.

    See Dropout Guidelines for October 2008 CBEDS. Retrieved July 20, 2009, from http://www.cde.ca.gov/ds/sd/cb/dropoutguide.asp

  6. 6.

    See final regulations for the federal Title I of the No Child Left Behind Act issued in October 2008. Retrieved July 20, 2009, from http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/reg/proposal/uniform-grad-rate.html

References

  • Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Kabbini, N. S. (2001). The dropout process in life course perspective: Early risk factors at home and school. Teachers College Record, 103, 760–882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Diploma Project (2007). Aligning high school graduation requirements with the real world: a road map for states. Washington, DC: Achieve. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://www.achieve.org/AligningHighSchoolGradRequirements

  • Barrington, B. L., & Hendricks, B. (1989). Differentiating characteristics of high school graduates, dropouts, and nongraduates. Journal of Educational Research, 82, 309–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bickel, R., & Papagiannis, G. (1988). Post-high school prospects and district-level dropout rates. Youth & Society, 20, 123–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borman, G. D., Hewes, G. M., Overman, L. T., & Brown, S. (2003). Comprehensive school reform and achievement: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 73, 125–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bridgeland, J. M., DiIulio Jr., J. J., & Streeter, R. (2008). Raising the compulsory school attendance age: The case for reform. Washington, DC: Civic Enterprises.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., & Necherman, H. J. (1989). Early school dropout: Configurations and determinants. Child Development, 60, 1437–1452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, S. V., & Heckman, J. J. (1993). The nonequivalence of high school equivalents. Journal of Labor Economics, 11, 1–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Card, D., & Krueger, A. B. (1998). School resources and student outcomes. Annals of the American Academy of Political & Social Science, 559, 39–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carnoy, M., Jacobson, R., Mishel, L., & Rothstein, R. (2005). The charter school dust-up: Examining the evidence on enrollment and achievement. Washington, DC/New York: Economic Policy Institute and Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Center for Research on Education Outcomes (CREDO). (2009). Multiple choice: Charter school performance in 16 states. Executive Summary. Stanford, CA: CREDO, Stanford University.

    Google Scholar 

  • City University of New York. (2009). College now, high school graduation: Credit and regents requirements. New York City: Author. Retrieved from http://collegenow.cuny.edu/nextstop/ finish_hs/creditreq/

  • Clark, R. L. (1992). Neighborhood effects on dropping out of school among teenage boys. Discussion paper. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Comprehensive School Reform Quality Center. (2006). CSRQ center report on middle and high school comprehensive school reform models. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crane, J. (1991). The epidemic theory of ghettos and neighborhood effects on dropping out and teenage childbearing. American Journal of Sociology, 96, 1226–1259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dynarski, M., Clarke, L., Cobb, B., Finn, J., Rumberger, R., & Smink, J. (2008). Dropout prevention: A practice guide (NCEE 2008–4025). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, United States Department of Education. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc

  • Dynarski, M., & Gleason, P. (1998). How can we help? What we have learned from federal dropout-prevention programs. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ensminger, M. E., & Slusacick, A. L. (1992). Paths to high school graduation or dropout: A longitudinal study of a first-grade cohort. Sociology of Education, 65, 95–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fine, M. (1991). Framing dropouts: Notes on the politics of an urban public high school. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finn, Jr., C. E., Manno, B. V., & Vanourek, G. (2000). Charter schools in action: Renewing public education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garnier, H. E., Stein, J. A., & Jacobs, J. K. (1997). The process of dropping out of high school: A 19-year perspective. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 395–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garofano, A., & Sable, J. (2008). Public elementary and secondary school districts in the United States: 2005–06 (NCES 2008–339). Washington, DC: United States Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2008339

  • General Education Development Testing Service. (2008). 2007 GED testing program statistical report. Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallinan, M. T., & Williams, R. A. (1990). Students’ characteristics and the peer-influence process. Sociology of Education, 63, 122–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haveman, R., Wolfe, B., & Spaulding, J. (1991). Childhood events and circumstances influencing high school completion. Demography, 28, 133–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heckman, J. J., & LaFontaine, P. A. (2008). The American high school graduation rate: Trends and levels (NBER Working Paper 13670). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://www.nber.org/papers/w13670

  • Henig, J. R. (2008). Spin cycle: How research is used in policy debate: The case of charter schools. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jessor, R. (1993). Successful adolescent development among youth in high-risk settings. American Psychologist, 48, 117–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laird, J., Cataldi, E. F., KewalRamani, A., & Chapman, C. (2008). Dropout and completion rates in the United States: 2006 (NCES 2008–043). Washington, DC: United States Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2008053

  • Lee, V. E. (2000). Using hierarchical linear modeling to study social contexts: The case of school effects. Educational Psychologist, 35, 125–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNeal, R. B. (1997). High school dropouts: A closer examination of school effects. Social Science Quarterly, 78, 209–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miao, J., & Haney, W. (2004). High school graduation rates: Alternative methods and implications. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v12n55/

  • Mishel, L., & Roy, J. (2006). Rethinking high school graduation rates and trends. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Governors Association Task Force on State High School Graduation Data. (2005). Graduation counts. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://www.nga.org/Files/pdf/0507GRAD.PDF

  • National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (1999). Risks and opportunities: Synthesis of studies on adolescence. In M. D. Kipke (Ed.) Forum on adolescence. Washington, DC: National Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oakes, J., & Saunders, M. (Eds.) (2008). Beyond tracking: Multiple pathways to college, career, and civic participation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orfield, G., & Lee, C. (2005). Why segregation matters: Poverty and educational inequality. Cambridge, MA: The Civil Rights Project, Harvard University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2008). Education at a glance 2008. Paris: OECD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Planty, M., Provasnik, S., & Daniel, B. (2007). High school coursetaking: Findings from the condition of education 2007 (NCES 2007–065). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reardon, S. F., Atteberry, A., Arshan, N., & Kurlaender, M. (2009). Effects of California High School Exit Exam on student persistence, achievement, and graduation. Stanford, CA: Institute for Research on Education Policy & Practice, Stanford University. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://www.stanford.edu/group/irepp/cgi-bin/joomla/index.php

  • Riehl, C. (1999). Labeling and letting go: An organizational analysis of how high school students are discharged as dropouts. In A. M. Pallas (Ed.), Research in sociology of education and socialization (pp. 231–268). New York: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roderick, M. (1993). The path to dropping out. Westport, CN: Auburn House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotermund, S. (2007a). Why students drop out of high school: Comparisons from three national surveys (Statistical Brief 2). Santa Barbara, CA: California Dropout Research Project, University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://cdrp.ucsb.edu/dropouts/pubs_statbriefs.htm

  • Rotermund, S. (2007b). Alternative education enrollment and dropouts in California high schools (Statistical Brief 6). Santa Barbara, CA: California Dropout Research Project, University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://cdrp.ucsb.edu/dropouts/ pubs_statbriefs.htm

  • Rothstein, R. (2004). Class and schools: Using social, economic, and educational reform to close the black-white achievement gap. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rumberger, R. W. (1995). Dropping out of middle school: A multilevel analysis of students and schools. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 583–625.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rumberger, R. W., Ghatak, R., Poulos, G., Ritter, P. L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1990). Family influences on dropout behaviour in one California high school. Sociology of Education, 63, 283–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rumberger, R. W., & Larson, K. A. (1998). Student mobility and the increased risk of high school drop out. American Journal of Education, 107, 1–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rumberger, R. W., & Lim, S. A. (2008). Why students drop out of school: A review of 25 years of research. Santa Barbara, CA: California Dropout Research Project. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://cdrp.ucsb.edu/dropouts/pubs_reports.htm#15

  • Rumberger, R. W., & Palardy, G. J. (2004). Multilevel models for school effectiveness research. In D. Kaplan (Ed.), Handbook of quantitative methodology for the social sciences (pp. 235–258). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rumberger, R. W., & Thomas, S. L. (2000). The distribution of dropout and turnover rates among urban and suburban high schools. Sociology of Education, 73, 39–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, T. D. (2009). Mini-digest of education statistics 2008 (NCES 2009–021). Washington, DC: United States Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2009021

  • Snyder, T. D., Dillow, S. A., & Hoffman, C. M. (2009). Digest of education statistics, 2008 (NCES 2008–022). Washington, DC: United States Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp? pubid=2009020

  • Swanson, C. B., & Schneider, B. (1999). Students on the move: Residential and educational mobility in America’s schools. Sociology of Education, 72, 54–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teachman, J. D., Paasch, K., & Carver, K. (1996). School capital and dropping out of school. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 773–783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trueba, H. T., Spindler, G., & Spindler, L. (Eds.). (1989). What do anthropologists have to say about dropouts? New York: Falmer Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, J. H. (2003). Economic benefits of the GED: Lessons from recent research. Review of Educational Research, 73, 369–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Education. (2002). Comprehensive School Reform (CSR) program guidance. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://www.ed.gov/programs/compreform/legislation.html

  • United States Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. (2009). What Works Clearinghouse. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/overview/

  • United States Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, What Works Clearinghouse. (2008). WWC topic report: Dropout prevention. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http:z//ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/reports/topic.aspx?tid=06

  • Warren, J. R. (2005). State-level high school completion rates: Concepts, measures, and trends. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 13. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v13n51/

  • White, J. A., & Wehlage, G. (1995). Community collaboration: If it is such a good idea, why is it so hard to do? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 17, 23–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer, R., Gill, B., Booker, K., Lavertu, S., Sass, T. R., & Witte, J. (2009). Charter schools in eight states: Effects on achievement, attainment, integration, and competition. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Rumberger, R.W. (2011). High School Dropouts in the United States. In: Lamb, S., Markussen, E., Teese, R., Polesel, J., Sandberg, N. (eds) School Dropout and Completion. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9763-7_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics