Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

All Flesh Is Grass pp 199–214Cite as

Zoochory: The Dispersal Of Plants By Animals

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology ((COLE,volume 16))

Abstract

Zoochory is the dispersal of diaspores by animals. Animals can disperse plant seeds in several ways. Seeds can be transported on the outside of animals, a process known as epizoochory. Seed dispersal via ingestion by animals, or endozoochory, is the dispersal mechanism for most tree species. Thediaspores of endozoochorous plants are eaten by animals and humans and the hard seeds or fruit stones pass through the intestinal canal without damage (Smallwood, 1984). Synzoochory is the dispersal of seeds (nuts), which are an attractive long-term, storable food resource for animals (e.g., acorns, hazelnuts, and walnuts): the seeds are stored some distance from the parent plant, and some escape being eaten if the animal forgets them. Synzoochory is mainly performed by ants and some birds. The dispersal process that involves birds carrying plant propagules in their bills is called stomatochory, a type of synzoochory (van der Pijl, 1982). Dyszoochory is the process whereby diaspores are destroyed (eaten and digested), but some of the seeds are accidentally dropped, thus contributing to regeneration (van der Pijl, 1982).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Agami, M. and Vaisel, Y. (1986) The role of mallard (Anas platyrhinchos) in distribution and ­germination ofnajas marina L. seeds. Oecologia68: 473–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, A.N. (2006a) Pre-dispersal seed losses to insects in species ofLeptospermum (Myrtaceae). Aust. Ecol.14: 13–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, A.N. (2006b) Soil of the nest-mound of the seed-dispersing ant, Aphaenogaster longiceps, enhances seedling growth. Aust. Ecol.13: 469–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andresen, E. and Levey, D.J. (2004) Effects of dung and seed size on secondary dispersal, seed ­predation, and seedling establishment of rainforest trees. Oecologia139: 45–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bascompte, J. and Jordano, P. (2007) Plant–animal mutualistic networks: The architecture of ­biodiversity. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst.38: 567–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beattie, A.J. (1983) Distribution of ant-dispersed plants. Sonderb. Naturwiss. Ver. Hambg.7: 249–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bullock, J.M., Kenward, R.E. and Hails, R.S. (eds.) (2002) Dispersal Ecology: The 42nd Symposium of the British Ecological Society, University of Reading.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, R.J., Barrett, P.M., Kenrick, P. and Penn, M.G. (2009) Diversity patterns amongst herbivorous dinosaurs and plants during the Cretaceous: implications for hypotheses of dinosaur/angiosperm co-evolution. J. Evol. Biol.22: 446–459.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cain, M.L., Milligan, B.G. and Strand, A.E. (2000) Long-distance seed dispersal in plant populations. Am. J. Bot.87: 1217–1227.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlo, T.A., Collazo, J.A. and Groom, M.J. (2003) Avian fruit preferences across a Puerto Rican forested landscape; pattern consistency and amplications for seed removal. Oecologia134: 119–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, C.A. and Onderdonk, D.A. (1998) Forests without primates: primate/plant codependency. Cons. Biol.45: 127–141.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Christian, C.E. and Stanton, M.L. (2004) Cryptic consequences of a seed dispersal mutualism: seed burial, elaiosome removal, and seed bank dynamics. Ecology85: 1101–1110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corlett, R.T. (1998) Frugivory and seed dispersal by vertebrates in the Oriental (Indomalayan) Region. Biol. Rev.73: 413–448.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Debussche, M. and Isenmann, P. (1989) Fleshy fruit characters and the choices of bird and mammal seed dispersers in a Mediterranean region. Oikos56: 327–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elner, S. and Shmida, A. (1981) Why are adaptions for long range seed dispersal rare in desert plants? Oecologia (Berl.)51: 133–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Englund, R. (1993) Fruit removal in Viburnum opulus: copious seed predation and sporadic massive seed dispersal in a temperate shrub. Oikos67: 503–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forget, P.M. and Milleron, T. (1991) Evidence for secondary seed dispersal by rodents in Panama. Oecologia87: 596–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez, C., Espadaler, X. and Bas, J.M. (2005) Ant behaviour and seed morphology: a missing link of myrmecochory. Oecologia146: 244–246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halevy, G. (1974) Effect of Gazelles and Beetkes (Bruchidae) on germination and establishment ofAcacia species. Isr. J. Bot.23: 120–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Handel, S.N. and Beattie, A.J. (1990) Seed dispersal by ants. Sci. Am.263: 76–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herrera, C.M. (1989) Frugivory and seed dispersal by carnivorous mammals, and associated fruit characteristics in undisturbed Mediterranean habitats. Oikos55: 250–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herrera, C.M. (2002) Seed dispersal by vertebrates, In: C.M. Herrera and O. Pellmyr (eds.)Plant–Animal Interactions: An Evolutionary Approach. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 185–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hershey, D.R. (2004) The widespread misconception that the tambalacoque absolutely required the dodo for its seeds to germinate. Plant Sci. Bull.50: 105–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horvitz, C.C. and Schemske, D.W. (1986) Ant-nest soil and seedling growth in a neotropical ­ant-dispersed herb Oecologia70: 318–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howe, H.F. (1986) Seed dispersal by fruit-eating birds and mammals, In: D.R Murray (ed.)Seed ­Dispersal. Academic, New York, pp. 123–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Izhaki, I. and Safriel, U.N. (1989) Why are there so few exclusive frugivorous birds? Experiments on fruit digestibility. Oikos54: 23–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitamura, S., Yumoto, T. and Poonswad, P. (2002) Interactions between fleshy fruits and frugivores in a tropical seasonal forest in Thailand. Oecologia133: 559–572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitamura, S., Yumoto, T., Poonswad, P. and Wohandee, P. (2007) Frugivory and seed dispersal by Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, in a moist evergreen forest of Thailand. J. Trop. Ecol.23: 373–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kominami, Y., Nagamatsu, D., Sato, T., Saito, S. and Tanouchi, H. (2003) Structural changes in a tree population in an isolated stand of lucidophyllous forest. Jap. J. Cons. Ecol.8: 33–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kwit, C., Levey, D.J., Greenberg, C.H., Pearson, S.F., McCarty, J.P., Sargent, S. and Mumme, R.L. (2004) Fruit abundance and local distribution of wintering hermit thrushes (Catharus guttatus) and yellow-rumped warblers (Dendroica coronata) in South Carolina. AUK121: 46–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, S.A., Muller-Landau, H.C., Nathan, R. and Chave, J. (2003) The ecology and evolution of seed dispersal: A theoretical perspective. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst.34: 575–604.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lomascolo, S.B., Speranza, P. and Kimball, R.T. (2008) Correlated evolution of fig size and color ­supports the dispersal syndromes hypothesis. Oecologia156: 783–796.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manzano, P. and Malo, J.E. (2006) Extreme long-distance seed dispersal via sheep. Front. Ecol. ­Environ.4: 244–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthias, C., Wichmann, M.J., Alexander, M.B., Soons, S.G., Dunne, L., Gould, R., Fairfax, C., Niggemann, M., Rosie, S.H. and Bullock, J.M. (2008) Human-mediated dispersal of seeds over long distances. Proc. R. Soc. B: Biol Sci. doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.1131.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarty, J.P., Levey, D.J., Greenberg, C.H. and Sargent, S. (2002) Spatial and temporal variation in fruit use by wildlife in a forested landscape. For. Ecol. Manage.164: 277–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moran, C., Catterall, C.P., Green, R.J. and Olsen, M.F. (2004) Functional variation among ­frugivorous birds: Implications for rainforest seed dispersal in a fragmented subtropical landscape. Oecologia141: 584–595.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, J.A., Vellend, M., Gardescu, S. and Marks P.L. (2004) Seed dispersal by white-tailed deer: implications for long-distance dispersal, invasion, and migration of plants in eastern North America. Oecologia139: 35–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakanishi, H. (1996) Fruit color and fruit size of bird-disseminated plants in Japan. Vegetatio123: 207–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nathan, N., Schurr, F.M., Spiegel, O., Steinitz, O., Trakhtenbrot, A. and Tsoar, A. (2008) Mechanisms of long-distance seed dispersal. Trends Ecol. Evol. (Personal ed.)23: 638–647.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noma, N. and Yumoto, T. (1997) Fruiting phenology of animal-dispersed plants in response to winter migration of frugivores in a warm temperate forest on Yakushima Island. Jap. Ecol. Res.12: 119–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pitelka, F. (1997) Plant migration and climate change. Am. Sci.85: 464–473.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reid, N. (2006) Coevolution of mistletoes and frugivorous birds? Aust. Ecol.16: 457–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salisbury, E.J. (1942) The weed problem. Nature149: 594–597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shmida, A. and Elner, S. (1983) Seed dispersal on pastoral grazers in open Mediterranean chapparal, Israel. Isr. J. Bot.32: 147–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J. (1984) Ecology of seed dispersal. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst.13: 201–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorenson, A.E. (1986) Seed dispersal by adhesion. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst.17: 443–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takanose, Y. and Kamitani, Y. (2003) Fruiting of fleshy-fruited plants and abundance of frugivorous birds: Phenological correspondence in a temperate forest in central Japan. Ornithol. Sci.2: 25–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Temple, S.A. (1977) Plantanimal mutualism: Coevolution with Dodo leads to near extinction of plant. Science197: 885–886.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Terborgh, J. (1986) Community aspects of frugivory in tropical forests, In: A. Estrada and T.H. Fleming (eds.)Frugivores and Seed Dispersal. Dr. W. Junk, Dordrecht, pp. 371–384.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tiffney, B.H. (2004) Vertebrate dispersal of seed plants through time. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst.35: 1–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Traveset, A. (1994a) Influence of quality of bird frugivory on the fitness ofPistacia terebinthus L. Evol. Ecol.8: 618–627.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Traveset, A. (1994b) The effect ofAgonoscena targionii (Licht.) (Homoptera:Psylloidea) on seed ­production byPistacia terebinthus. Oecologia (Berlin)98: 72–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Pijl, L. (1982)Principles of Dispersal in Higher Plants, Third Edition. Springer, New York.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshikawa, T., Isagi, Y. and Kikuzawa, K. (2009) Relationships between bird-dispersed plants and avian fruit consumers with different feeding strategies in Japan. Ecol. Res.24: 1301–1311.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Mina & Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 52900, Israel

    David Iluz

Authors
  1. David Iluz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David Iluz .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , The Mina & Everard Goodman Fac. of Life, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, 52900, Israel

    Zvy Dubinsky

  2. University of Jerusalem, Mevo Hadas 20, Efrat, 90435, Israel

    Joseph Seckbach

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Iluz, D. (2010). Zoochory: The Dispersal Of Plants By Animals. In: Dubinsky, Z., Seckbach, J. (eds) All Flesh Is Grass. Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology, vol 16. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9316-5_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation