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The New Faces of Victimhood pp 279–300Cite as

Globalization and Victims’ Rights at the International Criminal Court

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Part of the book series: Studies in Global Justice ((JUST,volume 8))

Abstract

Globalization has brought with it not only new types of victimization, it has also introduced new, international criminal law and international criminal justice institutions such as the permanent International Criminal Court (ICC) in The Hague, the Netherlands. A unique characteristic of the ICC is its recognition of victims’ rights through victim participation and reparation. These rights are inspired in part by international instruments, such as the 1985 UN Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. However, the UN Declaration is largely based on the needs of victims of conventional crime. In contrast to conventional criminal courts, the ICC deals with mass victimizations such as genocide

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The ICC Review Conference in 2010 has made considerable progress in further defining the act of agression. See the website of the ICC for the latest developments.

  2. 2.

    Resolution 40/34, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1985.

  3. 3.

    Shapland, J. & Hall, M. (2007). ‘What Do We Know About the Effects of Crime on Victims?’ International Review of Victimology, 14, 175–217.

  4. 4.

    Ibid.

  5. 5.

    Shapland, J., Willmore, J. & Duff, P. (1985). Victims in the Criminal Justice System, Aldershot, Gower Publishing; Kirchhoff, G.F., ‘Victimology – History and Basic Concepts’, in: -Kirchhoff, G.F., Kosovski, E. & Schneider, H.J. (Eds.), (1994). International Debates of Victimology, Mönchengladbach, WSV Publishing, pp. 1–81.

  6. 6.

    Supra n. 3.

  7. 7.

    Albrecht, H.-J. & Kilchling, M. (2007). ‘Victims of Terrorism Policies: Should victims of terrorism be treated differently?’ European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 13, 1–2 13–31. Letschert, R.M., Staiger, I. & Pemberton, A. (2010). Victims of Terrorism, Towards a European Standard of Justice, Dordrecht, Springer Press.

  8. 8.

    Kuwert, P. Spitzer, C., Träder, A., Freyberger, H. & Ermann, M. (2007). ‘Sixty years later: Post-traumatic stress symptoms and current psychopathology in former German Children of World War II’, International Psychogeriatrics, 19, 5 955–961.

  9. 9.

    Brouwer de, A. & Ka Hon Chu, S. (2009). The Men Who Killed Me: Rwandan Survivors of Sexual Violence, Vancouver, Douglas & McIntyre, p. 11.

  10. 10.

    Tajfel, H. (1982). Social Identity and Intergroup Relations, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

  11. 11.

    Stover, E. (2005). The Witnesses: War Crimes and the Promise of Justice in The Hague, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press.

  12. 12.

    Barnes, A. & Ephross, P. (1994). ‘The Impact of Hate Violence on Victims: Emotional and Behavioral Responses to Attacks’, Social Work, 39, 3, 247–251; Weiss, J. (1997). ‘Working with Victims of Ethnoviolence’, in: Greif, G. & Ephross, E. (eds.) Group Work with Populations at Risk, New York, NY, Oxford University Press, pp. 121–133; Craig-Henderson, K. & Sloan, R. (2003). ‘After the Hate: Helping Psychologists Help Victims of Racist Hate Crime’. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 4, 481–490; Silver, W., Mihorean, K. & Taylor-Butts, A. (2004). ‘Hate Crime in Canada’, Juristat, Canadian Centre for Criminal Justice Statistics, 24, 4.

  13. 13.

    Barnes and Epross, supra n. 11.

  14. 14.

    Craig-Henderson and Sloan, supra n. 11.

  15. 15.

    Schneider, K., Hitlan, R. & Radhakrishnan, P. (2000). ‘An Examination of the Nature and Correlates of Ethnic Harassment Experiences in Multiple Contexts’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 1, 3–13; Loo, C., Fairbank, Scurfield, R. Ruch, L. King, Adams, l. (2001). ‘Measuring Exposure to Racism: Development and Validation of a Race-Related Stressor Scale (RRSS) for Asian American Vietnam Veterans’, Psychological Assessment, 13, 4, 503–520.

  16. 16.

    Bryant-Davis, T. & Ocampo, C. (2005). ‘Racist Incident-Based Trauma’, The Counseling Psychologist, 33, 4, 479–500; Bryant-Davis, T. & Ocampo, C. (2005). ‘The Trauma of Racism: Implications for Counseling, Research and Education’, The Counseling Psychologist, 33, 4, 574–578.

  17. 17.

    Garofalo, J. (1997). ‘Hate Crime Victimization in the United States’, in: Davis, R., Lurigio, A. & Skogan, W. (eds.) Victims of Crime, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, pp. 134–145.

  18. 18.

    Study cited in Weiss supra n. 11.

  19. 19.

    Silver et al., supra n. 11.

  20. 20.

    Supra n. 16.

  21. 21.

    Weiss, J. (2005). ‘Working with Victims of Hate Crimes’, in: Greif, G. & Ephross, P. (eds.), Group Work with Populations at Risk, 2nd edition, New York, NY, Oxford University Press, pp.197–211.

  22. 22.

    Barnes & Ephross, supra n. 11.

  23. 23.

    Craig-Henderson & Sloan, supra n. 11; Bryant-Davis & Ocampo, supra n. 15.

  24. 24.

    Craig-Henderdson & Sloan, supra n. 11.

  25. 25.

    Weiss, supra n. 11.

  26. 26.

    Ibid.

  27. 27.

    Bowling, B. (1994). ‘Racial Harassment in East London’, in: Hamm, M. (ed.), Hate Crime: International Perspectives on Causes and Control, Cincinnati, OH, Anderson Publishing Company, pp. 2–36; See also Barnes & Ephross, supra n. 11.

  28. 28.

    Baril, M. (1984). L’envers du crime. Cahier no. 2, Montréal, Centre international de criminology comparée, Université de Montréal.

  29. 29.

    Danieli, Y (1998). International Handbook of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma, New York, Plenum Press; Barankowsky, A., Young, M., Johnson-Douglas, S., Williams-Keeler, L. & McCarrey, M. (1998). ‘PTSD Transmission: A Review of Secondary Traumatization in Holocaust Survivor Families’, Canadian Psychology, 39, 4, 247–256.

  30. 30.

    Danieli, supra n. 28.

  31. 31.

    Craig-Henderson & Sloan, supra n. 11.

  32. 32.

    Supra n. 15.

  33. 33.

    Westermeyer, J. & Williams, M. (1998). ‘Three Categories of Victimization Among Refugees in a Psychiatric Clinic’, in: Jaranason, J.M. & Popkin, M. (eds.), Caring for Victims of Torture, Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, pp. 61–87.

  34. 34.

    Shaw, M. (2001). ‘Time Heals All Wounds?’ in: Farrell, G. & Pease, K. (eds.) Repeat Victimization. Crime Prevention Studies, vol. 12, Monsey, NY, Criminal Justice Press, pp. 218–233.

  35. 35.

    Supra n. 15.

  36. 36.

    Thabet, A.A.M. & Vostanis, P. (1999). ‘Stress Reactions in Children of War’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 3, 385–391.

  37. 37.

    Wemmers, J. (2003). Introduction à la victimologie, Montreal, Les presses de l’Université de Montréal.

  38. 38.

    Maslow, A.H. (1968). Toward a Psychology of Being, 2nd edition, New York, NY, Van Nostrand Reinhold.

  39. 39.

    Parmentier, S. & Weitekamp, E. (2007). ‘Political Crimes and Serious violations of Human Rights: Towards a Criminology of International Crimes’, in: Parmentier, S. & Weitekamp, E. (eds.), Crime and Human Rights. Sociology of Crime, Law and Deviance, vol. 9, Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp. 109–144.

  40. 40.

    Brouwer, de A. (2005). Supranational Criminal Prosecution of Sexual Violence: The ICC and the Practice of the ICTY and the ICTR, Antwerp – Oxford, Intersentia, pp. 232–234.

  41. 41.

    Supra n. 10, 39.

  42. 42.

    Denkers, A.J.M (1996). Psychological Reactions of Victims of Crime: The Influence of Pre-Crime, Crime and Post-Crime Factors. Doctoral dissertation. Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit.

  43. 43.

    Shapland, et al., supra n. 4; Herman, J.L. (2003). ‘The Mental Health of Crime Victims: Impact of Legal Intervention’, Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 2, 159–166.

  44. 44.

    Supra n. 10.

  45. 45.

    See inter alia, Garkawe, S. (2003). Victims and the International Criminal Court: Three Major Issues, International Criminal Law Review, 3, 345–67.

  46. 46.

    Supra n. 10.

  47. 47.

    In the Lubanga Appeals Chamber Decision of 11 July 2008, it was stated that the harm suffered by victims under Rule 85(a) of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence need to be personal harm which could be either direct or indirect. See The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Situation in the DRC Judgement on the appeals of The Prosecutor and The Defence against Trial Chamber I’s Decision on Victims’ Participation of 18 January 2008, ICC-01/04-01/06 OA 9 OA 10, Appeals Chamber, 11 July 2008 (hereafter Lubanga Appeals Chamber Decision of 11 July 2008), para. 32.

  48. 48.

    See inter alia, Articles 15(2), 15(3), 19(3), 65, 68(3), 75(3), 82(4) of the Rome Statute and Rules 85–93 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence.

  49. 49.

    See Situation in the DRC, ICC-01/04-101-tEN-Corr, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 17 January 2006, paras. 77–101; and Lubanga Appeals Chamber Decision of 11 July 2008 (para. 62 and 64), which overturned the Lubanga Trial Chamber Decision of 18 January 2008, which held that victims do not necessarily need to bring evidence of harm suffered as a result of the charges confirmed against the accused, but that it would also suffice when a link to the evidence being brought against the accused could be established. See The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Situation in the DRC, ICC-01/04-01/06, Trial Chamber I, 18 January 2008 (hereafter Lubanga Trial Chamber Decision of 18 January 2008), paras. 93, 95.

  50. 50.

    Lubanga Trial Chamber Decision of 18 January 2008, paras. 101–122.

  51. 51.

    Brouwer, de A. & Groenhuijsen, M. (2009). ‘The Role of Victims in International Criminal Proceedings’, in: S. Vasiliev and G. Sluiter, International Criminal Procedure: Towards a Coherent Body of Law, London, UK, Cameron May, p. 171.

  52. 52.

    See Groenhuijsen, M. (2009). ‘Victims’ Rights and the International Criminal Court: The Model of the Rome Statute and its Operation’, in: van Genugten, W., Scharf, M. & Radin, S. (eds.), Criminal Jurisdiction 100 Years after the 1907 Hague Peace Conference, The Hague, T.M.C. Asser Press, pp. 306–307.

  53. 53.

    Chritstophe Boltanski, ‘Congo: Le viol comme arme de guerre’, Le Nouvel Observateur, December 2008: http://hebdo.nouvelobs.com/hebdo/parution/p2300/articles/a389902-congo_le_viol_comme_arme_de_guerre.html (Downloaded 30 June 2009).

  54. 54.

    See website Sudan Watch at: http://sudanwatch.blogspot.com/2004/11/number-of-darfur-victims-2-million-and.html (last accessed 1 July 2009).

  55. 55.

    Assembly of States Parties, Report on the Activities of the Court, ICC-ASP/7/25, 29 October 2008, para. 8.

  56. 56.

    Women’s Initiatives for Gender Justice, Gender Report Card 2008, p. 53.

  57. 57.

    See further Glassborow, K. (2007). Victim Participation in ICC Cases Jeopardised, Institute for War & Peace Reporting, AR No. 148, 20 December 2007.

  58. 58.

    Legal Representative Luc Walleyn, the legal representative for victims a/0001/06, a/0002/06 and a/0003/06, mentioned in this regard: “Your Honours, I think this is a very important issue, and I emphasise I would like the court to give out a message that will give confidence to the victims who need to be placed in a position where they feel safe constantly. It is not by chance that a few victims are participating in these proceedings, whereas they have thousands of victims. There are thousands of children who were recruited into these militias. The reason is because it is not easy do make these – to follow these procedures, and at each stage of the procedure the victims have to go through a lot.” See Transcript, Prosecutor v. Lubanga Dyilo, Situation in the DRC, ICC-01/04-01/06, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 4 December 2007, p. 49.

  59. 59.

    See K. Glassborow, Victim Participation in ICC Cases Jeopardised, Institute for War & Peace Reporting, AR No. 148, 20 December 2007. It seems furthermore difficult for victims to prove that they are indigent as the Court does not seem to use, – despite the context in which victims in conflict or post-conflict situations are living – a presumption of indigence. See Registrar’s Decision on the Indigence of Victims a/0016/06, a/0018/06, a/0021/06, a/0025/06, a/0028/06, a/0031/06, a/0032/06,a/0034/06, a/0042/06, a/0044/06, a/0045/06, a/0142/06, a/0148/06, a/0150/06, a/0188/06, a/0199/06, a/0228/06, Situation in the DRC, ICC-01/04-490-tENG, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 26 March 2008, in which the Registry indicated that a number of victims would be provisionally considered indigent until such time a full inquiry into their means could be undertaken.

  60. 60.

    The figure of 960 applications from persons seeking to participate as victims in the ICC proceedings given by the Court at the 2008 Assembly of States Parties was the number of applications received by the Court from the moment the Court started operations. See Assembly of States Parties, Report on the Activities of the Court, ICC-ASP/7/25, 29 October 2008, para. 8. See also Human Rights Watch, Courting History: The Landmark International Criminal Court’s First Years, July 2008, pp. 200–201.

  61. 61.

    Brouwer, de A. & Groenhuijsen, M. (2009). ‘The Role of Victims in International Criminal Proceedings’, in: S. Vasiliev and G. Sluiter, International Criminal Procedure: Towards a Coherent Body of Law, London, CMP Publishing, Supra n. 51 pp. 203–204.

  62. 62.

    Wemmers, J. (1999). ‘Victim Notification and Public Support for the Criminal Justice System’, International Review of Victimology, 6, 3, 167–178.

  63. 63.

    The significance of victim and witness protection is furthermore recognised on several other occasions in the Rome Statute and Rules of Procedure and Evidence. See inter alia, Article 57(3)(c). Rules 16–19, Rule 50(1). Rule 52(1). Rule 59, Rule 67, Rule 68, Rule 76(4). Rule 77, Rule 81, Rule 84, Rule 86, Rule 105(3), Rule 106(2), Rule 107(3), Rule 112(4), Rule 119(3), Rule 121(10) and Rule 131(2).

  64. 64.

    Lubanga Trial Chamber Decision of 18 January 2008, para. 129.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., para. 128.

  66. 66.

    See inter alia, Lubanga Trial Chamber Decision of 18 January 2008, para. 130 (the Chamber held that it is “conscious of the particularly vulnerable position of many of these victims, who live in an area of ongoing conflict where it is difficult to ensure their safety”); and Human Rights Watch, Courting History: The Landmark International Criminal Court’s First Years, July 2008, p. 153 (“Human Rights Watch’s research in situation countries indicates that real threats have been made against victim participants and against the intermediaries who help to facilitate their interaction with the Court”).

  67. 67.

    Lubanga Trial Chamber Decision of 18 January 2008, para. 137.

  68. 68.

    See further Brouwer, de A. & Groenhuijsen, M. (2009). ‘The Role of Victims’, in: International Criminal Procedure: Towards a Coherent Body of Law, London, CMP Publishing, Supra n. 51 pp. 172–187.

  69. 69.

    Victims’ Rights Working Group Bulletin, Access: Victims Rights Before the International Criminal Court, Issue 13, Winter 2008, pp. 2–3.

  70. 70.

    Lubanga Trial Chamber Decision of 18 January 2008, paras. 130–131.

  71. 71.

    Ibid., para. 131.

  72. 72.

    See Transcript, Prosecutor v. Lubanga Dyilo, Situation in the DRC, ICC-01/04-01/06-T-57, Trial Chamber I, 29 October 2007, pp. 31–32.

  73. 73.

    Footnote 5 to Article 73 on reparations to victims in the final report of the Working Group on Procedural Matters, A/CONF.183/C.1/WGPM/L.2/Add.7, 13 July 1998. See also Friman, H. & Lewis, P., ‘Reparation to Victims’, in: Lee, R.S. et al. (eds.), The International Criminal Court: Elements of Crimes and Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Ardsley, NY, Transnational Publishers, 2001, pp. 477–478.

  74. 74.

    See ICC website (http://www.icc-cpi.int) under Structure of the Court/Victims/Trust Fund for Victims/current projects (last accessed 6 May 2009). See also Decision on Notification of the Trust Fund for Victims and on its Request for Leave to respond to OPCD’s Observations on the Notification, Situation in Uganda, ICC-02/04-126, Pre-Trial Chamber II, 19 March 2008; and Decision on the Notification of the Board of Directors of the Trust Fund for Victims in Accordance with Regulation 50 of the Regulations of the Trust Fund, Situation in the DRC, ICC-01/04-492, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 11 April 2008, in which the Court approved the proposed activities of the Board of Directors of the Trust Fund for Victims.

  75. 75.

    The outreach activities of the Court for the different situations before the Court can be found at the ICC website, under Structure of the Court/Outreach: http://www.icc-cpi.int (last accessed 6 May 2009). See also ICC, Public Information and Documentation Section, Outreach Unit, Outreach Report 2008.

  76. 76.

    See, inter alia, Human Rights Center, Payson Center for International Development and International Center for Transitional Justice, Living With Fear: A Population-based Survey on Attitudes about Peace, Justice, and Social Reconstruction in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, August 2008, p. 47.

  77. 77.

    Human Rights Watch, Courting History: The Landmark International Criminal Court’s First Years, July 2008, p. 180.

  78. 78.

    See inter alia, ICC Press Release, The ICC organises open discussions in Bunia (Ituri) and Béni (North Kivu), 10 March 2008; ICC Press Release, ICC involves women in the Acholi and Lango sub-regions of Northern Uganda in discussion about the Court, 14 July 2008; ICC Press Release, ICC extends outreach activities to female victims of sexual violence in Iga Barrière (Ituri, DRC), 15 September 2008.

  79. 79.

    For example, in the Central African Republic an understaffed field office is only established in the capital Bangui, not easy accessible for the population affected by the conflict concerned. See ICC, Public Information and Documentation Section, Outreach Unit, Outreach Report 2008.

  80. 80.

    This section is based on Brouwer, A. de & Groenhuijsen, M. (2009). ‘The Role of Victims’, in: International Criminal Procedure: Towards a Coherent Body of Law, London, CMP Publishing, Supra n. 51, pp. 202–203.

  81. 81.

    See for example, for the police: Wemmers J.-A. (1996). Victims in the Criminal Justice System, Amsterdam, Kugler. More generally, see Waller, I. (2003). Crime Victims: Doing Justice to their Support and Protection, Helsinki, HEUNI, p. 48 et seq; and Groenhuijsen, M. (2005). ‘International Protocols on Victims’ Rights and some Reflections on Significant Recent Developments in Victimology’, in: Snyman, R. & Davis, L. (eds.), Victimology in South Africa, Pretoria, Van Schaik Publishers, pp. 333–351.

  82. 82.

    As far as the qualifications of Judges is concerned, Article 36(3)(b) of the Rome Statute makes clear that not only individuals with a legal background in court can be elected as Judge, but also individuals with a legal background in, inter alia, academia or diplomacy.

  83. 83.

    For example, the prosecutorial strategy seems to be focused on selected incidents (one village in the Katanga and Chui case) or crimes (only conscripting and enlisting children under the age of 15 years and using them to participate actively in hostilities in the Lubanga case). Leaving out many victims wishing to participate since their harm is not linked to the incidents and/or crimes charged.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. École de criminologie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128 succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H3C 3J7

    Jo-Anne Wemmers

  2. Department of Criminal Law, Tilburg University, PO Box 90153, 5000 LE, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Anne-Marie de Brouwer

Authors
  1. Jo-Anne Wemmers
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  2. Anne-Marie de Brouwer
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Correspondence to Jo-Anne Wemmers .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. International Victimology, Institute (INTERVICT), Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands

    Rianne Letschert

  2. International Victimology, Institute (INTERVICT), Tilburg University, Tilburg, 5000 LE, Netherlands

    Jan van Dijk

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Wemmers, JA., de Brouwer, AM. (2011). Globalization and Victims’ Rights at the International Criminal Court. In: Letschert, R., van Dijk, J. (eds) The New Faces of Victimhood. Studies in Global Justice, vol 8. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9020-1_12

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