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National Regulation of Space Activities pp 373–404Cite as

Overview of the United States Space Policy and Law

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Part of the book series: Space Regulations Library Series ((SPRL,volume 5))

Abstract

The United States has been a major participant in space exploration and use. Its policies have helped shape the development of international law on the subject. Its domestic laws also provide a framework for the use of space by the private sector.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    A new US Space Policy was issued in 2006 to supersede the national space policy issued a decade earlier. National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy”; http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  2. 2.

    The USSR sent the first animal (a dog, named Laika) into space the following month.

  3. 3.

    The Soviets sent the first human (Yuri Garagin) into space on April 12, 1961. In May 1961, the US sent its first astronaut (Alan Shepard) into space. In 1965, a Soviet astronaut became the first to walk in space.

  4. 4.

    Ivan Vlasic, “The Legal Aspects of Peaceful and Non-Peaceful Uses of Outer Space” in B. Jasani, ed., Peaceful and Non-Peaceful Uses of Space. Problems of Definition for the Prevention of an Arms Race (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 1991).

  5. 5.

    John Kennedy, Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs (May 25, 1961).

  6. 6.

    Americans (beginning with Neil Armstrong) set foot on the Moon on July 20, 1969. The Soviets launched the first space station (Salyut I) on June 30, 1971. An unmanned American probe (Viking I) became the first earth object to land on Mars, on July 20, 1976.

  7. 7.

    John Kennedy, Address at Rice University on the Nation’s Space Effort (September 12, 1962).

  8. 8.

    “One cannot help but observe the will of US lawmakers to grant their nation the legislative means to support a flourishing industry so that it can maintain its leadership position far ahead of its competitors, political ones in a recent past with the former USSR, and commercial ones nowadays with Western Europe and Asia.” Patrick Salin, An Overview of US Commercial Space Legislation and Policies – Present and Future, 27 Air & Space L. 209, 210 (2002).

  9. 9.

    Jimmy Carter, National Space Policy, Presidential Directive/NSC-37 (May 11, 1978).

  10. 10.

    Ronald Reagan, National Space Policy, National Security Decision Directive No. 42 (July 4, 1982).

  11. 11.

    Ronald Reagan, Presidential Directive on National Space Policy (February 11, 1988).

  12. 12.

    Presidential Decision Directive (PDD)/NSC-49/NSTC-8, National Space Policy (September 14, 1996).

  13. 13.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 101(3), Pub. L. 101–611, (November 16, 1990).

  14. 14.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(d)(5), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  15. 15.

    National Science and Technology Policy, Organization and Priorities Act of 1976 § 101(b)(1), Pub. L. 94–282, 90 Stat. 459 (May 11, 1976).

  16. 16.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(d)(9), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000); National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1986 §§ 201–02, Pub. L. 99–170, 99 Stat. 1012 (December 5, 1985).

  17. 17.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1986 § 202(4), Pub. L. 99–170, 99 Stat. 1012 (December 5, 1985).

  18. 18.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(4), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988).

  19. 19.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1993 § 101(12), Pub. L. 102–588, 106 Stat. 5107 (November 4, 1992).

  20. 20.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 102(1), Pub. L. 101–611, (November 16, 1990).

  21. 21.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 3; http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  22. 22.

    Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 § 2(2)(3), Pub. L. 102–555, 106 Stat. 4163 (October 28, 1992).

  23. 23.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 101(7), Pub. L. 101–611, (November 16, 1990).

  24. 24.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1993 § 101(1), Pub. L. 102–588, 106 Stat. 5107 (November 4, 1992).

  25. 25.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1993 § 101(3), Pub. L. 102–588, 106 Stat. 5107 (November 4, 1992).

  26. 26.

    George W. Bush, A Renewed Spirit of Discovery (January 14. 2004), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. (P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  27. 27.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 §§ 102(d)(7), 205, 404, Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  28. 28.

    Ibid.

  29. 29.

    Jimmy Carter, National Space Policy, Presidential Directive/NSC-37 (May 11, 1978).

  30. 30.

    Ronald Reagan, National Space Policy, National Security Decision Directive No. 42 (July 4, 1982).

  31. 31.

    Ronald Reagan, National Space Policy, National Security Decision Directive No. 42 (July 4, 1982).

  32. 32.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1992 § 2(3), (8), (9), Pub. L. 102–195, 105 Stat. 1605 (December 9, 1991).

  33. 33.

    George W. Bush, A Renewed Spirit of Discovery (January 14. 2004), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. (P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  34. 34.

    U.S. Department of Defense, Dir. 3100.10, Space Policy 6 (July 9, 1999). Elizabeth Waldrop, Integration of Military and Civilian Space Assets: Legal and National Security Obligations, 55 A.F. L. Rev. 157 (2004).

  35. 35.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 8 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  36. 36.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2000 § 2(6), Pub. L. 016–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  37. 37.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(d)(8), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  38. 38.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(19)(E), (F), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988).

  39. 39.

    National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Authorization Act of 1992 § 105(c)(2)(E), Pub. L. 102–567, 106 Stat. 4270 (October 29, 1992).

  40. 40.

    Office of the White House Press Secretary, Statement by the Press Secretary (May 10, 1994).

  41. 41.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2000 § 2(7), Pub. L. 016–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  42. 42.

    Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, opened for signature January 27, 1967, 19 U.S.T. 2410, T.I.A.S. 6347, 610 U.N.T.S. 205, 6 I.L.M. 386, G.A. Res. 2222 (XXI), opened for signature on 27 January 1967, entered into force on 10 October 1967, 98 ratifications (of January 1, 2005); reprinted in XXX(1) Annals of Air & Space L. 3 (2005).

  43. 43.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 1 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  44. 44.

    Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, opened for signature January 27, 1967, 19 U.S.T. 2410, T.I.A.S. 6347, 610 U.N.T.S. 205, 6 I.L.M. 386, G.A. Res. 2222 (XXI), opened for signature on 27 January 1967, entered into force on 10 October 1967, 98 ratifications (of January 1, 2005); reprinted in XXX(1) Annals of Air & Space L. 3 (2005). (hereinafter referred to as the Outer Space Treaty).

  45. 45.

    Delbert Terrill, Jr., The Air Force Role in Developing International Outer Space Law (May 1999); “Peaceful” and Military Uses of Outer Space – Law and Policy, XXX(2) Annals of Air & Space Law 511, 514 (2005).

  46. 46.

    Christopher Petras, The Use of Force in Response to Cyber-Attack on Commercial Space Systems – Reexamining “Self-Defense” in Outer Space in Light Of The Convergence of U.S. Military And Commercial Space Activities, 67 J. Air L. & Com. 1213, 1214 (2002).

  47. 47.

    John Kennedy, Address Before the 18th General Assembly of the United Nations, New York (September 20, 1963).

  48. 48.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(a), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000). This policy was reaffirmed by President Reagan. Ronald Reagan, National Space Policy, National Security Decision Directive No. 42 (July 4, 1982).

  49. 49.

    National Science and Technology Policy, Organization and Priorities Act of 1976 § 101(b)(13), Pub. L. 94–282, 90 Stat. 459 (May 11, 1976). The “peaceful use of outer space continue to be of great value and offer benefits to all mankind”. Commercial Space Launch Act § 2(1), Pub. L. 98–575, 98 Stat. 3055 (October 30, 1984).

  50. 50.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 123 Pub. L. 101–611 (November 16, 1990).

  51. 51.

    Jimmy Carter, National Space Policy, Presidential Directive/NSC-37 (May 11, 1978).

  52. 52.

    Ronald Reagan, National Space Policy, National Security Decision Directive No. 42 (July 4, 1982).

  53. 53.

    Bill Clinton, National Space Policy (September 19, 1996).

  54. 54.

    Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, opened for signature January 27, 1967, 19 U.S.T. 2410, T.I.A.S. 6347, 610 U.N.T.S. 205, 6 I.L.M. 386, G.A. Res. 2222 (XXI), opened for signature on 27 January 1967, entered into force on 10 October 1967, 98 ratifications (of January 1, 2005); reprinted in XXX(1) Annals of Air & Space L. 3 (2005).

  55. 55.

    White House Fact Sheet, National Space Policy (September 1, 1996), released October 6, 2006. Christopher Petras, “Space Force Alpha”: Military Use of the International Space Station and the Concept of “Peaceful Purposes”, 53 A.F. L. Rev. 135, 156–57 (2000). See generally, Nathan Goldman, Space Policy: An Introduction (1992).

  56. 56.

    Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, opened for signature January 27, 1967, 19 U.S.T. 2410, T.I.A.S. 6347, 610 U.N.T.S. 205, 6 I.L.M. 386, G.A. Res. 2222 (XXI), opened for signature on 27 January 1967, entered into force on 10 October 1967, 98 ratifications (of January 1, 2005); reprinted in XXX(1) Annals of Air & Space L. 3 (2005).

  57. 57.

    “Letter of Transmittal to the Senate of the United States by President Lyndon Johnson,” Hearings before the Committee of Foreign Relations, United States Senate, Ninetieth Congress, First Session on Executive D, 90th Congress, First Session (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1967), at 107.

  58. 58.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 2 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  59. 59.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 1 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  60. 60.

    Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, opened for signature January 27, 1967, 19 U.S.T. 2410, T.I.A.S. 6347, 610 U.N.T.S. 205, 6 I.L.M. 386, G.A. Res. 2222 (XXI), opened for signature on 27 January 1967, entered into force on 10 October 1967, 98 ratifications (of January 1, 2005); reprinted in XXX(1) Annals of Air & Space L. 3 (2005).

  61. 61.

    42 U.S.C. § 2451(a).

  62. 62.

    Christopher Petras, “Space Force Alpha”: Military Use of the International Space Station and the Concept of “Peaceful Purposes”, 53 A.F. L. Rev. 135, 170 (2000).

  63. 63.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 2 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  64. 64.

    National Science and Technology Council, National Space Policy 3 (September 19, 1996); reaffirmed in National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 5 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006). See Robert Ramey, Armed Conflict on the Final Frontier: The Law of War in Space, 48 A.F. L. Rev. 1, 138 (2000). President Carter publicly acknowledged the existence of US military reconnaissance satellites in 1967. Christopher Petras, The Use of Force in Response to Cyber-Attack On Commercial Space Systems–Reexamining “Self-Defense” In Outer Space In Light of the Convergence of U.S. Military and Commercial Space Activities, 67 J. Air L. & Com. 1213, 1217 (2002).

  65. 65.

    Robert Ramey, Armed Conflict on the Final Frontier: The Law of War in Space, 48 A.F. L. Rev. 1, 137 (2000).

  66. 66.

    Jimmy Carter, National Space Policy, Presidential Directive/NSC-37 (May 11, 1978).

  67. 67.

    Ronald Reagan, National Space Policy, National Security Decision Directive No. 42 (July 4, 1982).

  68. 68.

    Ibid.

  69. 69.

    Ronald Reagan, Presidential Directive on National Space Policy (February 11, 1988).

  70. 70.

    Space Security Index 2004, XXX(2) Annals of Air & Space Law 273, 362 (2005).

  71. 71.

    Robert Wall, Rumsfeld Revamps Space, Pushes “Black” Projects, Av. Week & Space Tech. (May 14, 2001), at 30.

  72. 72.

    See e.g., Douglas Anderson, A Military Look into Space: The Ultimate High Ground, 1995 Army Law. 19, 25 (1995).

  73. 73.

    Seth Mydans, Bonn’s Foreign Minister Sees Gromyko About Arms Issue, N.Y. Times, March 5, 1985, at A15, col. 5.

  74. 74.

    “Peaceful” and Military Uses of Outer Space – Law and Policy, XXX(2) Annals of Air & Space Law 511, 520 (2005).

  75. 75.

    Space Security Index 2004, XXX(2) Annals of Air & Space Law 273, 362 (2005).

  76. 76.

    National Science and Technology Policy, Organization and Priorities Act of 1976 § 101(b)(4), Pub. L. 94–282, 90 Stat. 459 (May 11, 1976).

  77. 77.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 5 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  78. 78.

    Ibid.

  79. 79.

    The White House, Foreign Access to Remote Sensing Space Capabilities (March 10, 1994). See also The White House, U.S. Remote Sensing Policy (April 25, 2003).

  80. 80.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(b), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  81. 81.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(d)6), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  82. 82.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1993 § 101(7), Pub. L. 102–588, 106 Stat. 5107 (November 4, 1992).

  83. 83.

    U.S. Space Transportation Policy (January 6, 2005), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. 24 (P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  84. 84.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(d)(1), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  85. 85.

    National Science and Technology Policy, Organization and Priorities Act of 1976 § 101(b)(1), Pub. L. 94–282, 90 Stat. 459 (May 11, 1976).

  86. 86.

    Ronald Reagan, National Space Policy, National Security Decision Directive No. 42 (July 4, 1982).

    A. Science, Applications, and Technology: United States Government civil programs shall continue a balanced strategy of research, development, operations, and exploration for science, applications, and technology. The key objectives of these programs are to:

    1. (1)

      Preserve the United States preeminence in critical major space activities to enable continued exploitation and exploration of space.

    2. (2)

      Conduct research and experimentation to expand understanding of: (a) astrophysical phenomena and the origin and evolution of the universe, through long-term astrophysical observation; (b) the Earth, its environment, and its dynamic relation with the Sun; (c) the origin and evolution of the solar system, through solar, planetary, and lunar sciences and exploration; and (d) the space environment and technology required to advance knowledge in the biological sciences.

    3. (3)

      Continue to explore the requirements, operational concepts, and technology associated with permanent space facilities.

    4. (4)

      Conduct appropriate research and experimentation in advanced technology and systems to provide a basis for future civil space applications. Ibid.

  87. 87.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(e)(4), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  88. 88.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 101(1), Pub. L. 101–611 (November 16, 1990).

  89. 89.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(19)(C), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988).

  90. 90.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(d)(3), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  91. 91.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(d)(2), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000); National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 102(6), Pub. L. 101–611 (November 16, 1990); National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1992 § 3(4), Pub. L. 102–195, 105 Stat. 1605 (December 9, 1991).

  92. 92.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(19)(A), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988).

  93. 93.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(18), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988).

  94. 94.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(16)(A), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988).

  95. 95.

    Ronald Reagan, Space Station, National Security Decision Directive 5–83 (April 11, 1983).

  96. 96.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 §§ 101, 303, Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988); National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 102(9), (11), Pub. L. 101–611 (November 16, 1990).

  97. 97.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 102(14), Pub. L. 101–611 (November 16, 1990). The vehicle is also referred to as the “National Aero-Space Plane”. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1993 § 101(13), Pub. L. 102–588, 106 Stat. 5107 (November 4, 1992).

  98. 98.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 102(15), Pub. L. 101–611 (November 16, 1990).

  99. 99.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 114(a)(1), Pub. L. 101–611 (November 16, 1990).

  100. 100.

    George W. Bush, A Renewed Spirit of Discovery (January 14. 2004), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. (P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  101. 101.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 3 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  102. 102.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 6 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  103. 103.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 4 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  104. 104.

    U.S. Space Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Policy (December 15, 2004), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. (P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  105. 105.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(16)(D), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988); National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 102(6), Pub. L. 101–611, (November 16, 1990).

  106. 106.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1986 § 202(2), Pub. L. 99–170, 99 Stat. 1012 (December 5, 1985).

  107. 107.

    Richard Nixon, Statement on the Space Shuttle (January 5, 1972).

  108. 108.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1988 § 109, Pub. L. 100–147, 101 Stat. 860 (October 30, 1987).

  109. 109.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1993 § 101(4)-(5), Pub. L. 102–588, 106 Stat. 5107 (November 4, 1992).

  110. 110.

    National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Authorization Act of 1992 § 105(c)(2)(D), Pub. L. 102–567, 106 Stat. 4270 (October 29, 1992).

  111. 111.

    George W. Bush, A Renewed Spirit of Discovery (January 14. 2004), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. (P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  112. 112.

    U.S. Space Transportation Policy (January 6, 2005), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. 24 (P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  113. 113.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1988 § 110(b), Pub. L. 100–147, 101 Stat. 860 (October 30, 1987).

  114. 114.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1988 § 110(c), Pub. L. 100–147, 101 Stat. 860 (October 30, 1987).

  115. 115.

    Commercial Space Act of 1998 § 101, Pub. L. 105–303, 112 Stat. 2843 (October 28, 1998). The Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984, as amended in 1988, also expressed a strong US policy in favor of developing public infrastructure for the support of a commercial launch industry. 49 U.S.C. § 70101 (2003). See James Reed, The Commercial Space Launch Market and Bilateral Trade Agreements in Space Launch Services, 13 Am. U. Int’l L. Rev. 157 (1997).

  116. 116.

    Ronald Reagan, National Space Policy, National Security Decision Directive No. 42 (July 4, 1982).

    The United States Government will provide a climate conducive to expanded private sector investment and involvement in civil space activities, with due regard to public safety and national security. Private sector space activities will be authorized and supervised or regulated by the government to the extent required by treaty and national security. Ibid.

  117. 117.

    George Bush, Statement On Signing the Bill Ensuring the Applicability of Patent Law to Activities in Outer Space, 26 Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 1828 (November 15, 1990).

  118. 118.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1993 §§ 101(11), 501, Pub. L. 102–588, 106 Stat. 5107 (November 4, 1992).

  119. 119.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 101(14), Pub. L. 101–611, (November 16, 1990).

  120. 120.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(c), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  121. 121.

    Commercial Space Launch Act § 3, Pub. L. 98–575, 98 Stat. 3055 (October 30, 1984). Commercial Space Launch Act Amendments of 1988, Pub. L. 100–657 (November 15, 1988). 49 U.S.C. § 70101 (2003).

  122. 122.

    Commercial Space Act of 1998 § 201, Pub. L. 105–303, 112 Stat. 2843 (October 28, 1998). The general rule is subject to numerous exceptions, however.

  123. 123.

    Commercial Space Act of 1998 § 204, Pub. L. 105–303, 112 Stat. 2843 (October 28, 1998).

  124. 124.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1986 § 202(3), Pub. L. 99–170, 99 Stat. 1012 (December 5, 1985).

  125. 125.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(16)(C), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988).

  126. 126.

    Launch Services Purchases Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. § 2465b (2003).

  127. 127.

    The White House, U.S. Commercial Remote Sensing Policy (April 25, 2003).

  128. 128.

    The Open Market Reorganization for the Betterment of International Telecommunications Act, Pub. L. 106–1880, 106th Cong. (March 17, 2000).

  129. 129.

    U.S. Space Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Policy (December 15, 2004), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. (P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  130. 130.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(19)(D), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988).

  131. 131.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1989 § 101(19)(H), Pub. L. 100–685, 102 Stat. 4083 (November 17, 1988).

  132. 132.

    Pub. L. 108–492.

  133. 133.

    49 U.S.C. § 70101(a)(5), (6).

  134. 134.

    49 U.S.C. § 70101(a)(8).

  135. 135.

    49 U.S.C. § 70101(b).

  136. 136.

    49 U.S.C. § 70103(b). See Licensing and Safety Requirements for Launch, 71 Fed. Reg. 50508 (August 25, 2006).

  137. 137.

    George W. Bush, A Renewed Spirit of Discovery (January 14. 2004), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. (P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  138. 138.

    U.S. Space Transportation Policy (January. 6, 2005), reprinted in Space Law IV.B.1. 25(P. Dempsey, ed. February 2006).

  139. 139.

    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 7 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

  140. 140.

    National Science and Technology Policy, Organization and Priorities Act of 1976 § 101(b), Pub. L. 94–282, 90 Stat. 459 (May 11, 1976).

  141. 141.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 102(e), Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  142. 142.

    National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 § 401, Pub. L. 85–568 (as amended through Pub. L. 106–391, 114 Stat. 1577 (October 30, 2000).

  143. 143.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 102 (3), Pub. L. 101–611, (November 16, 1990).

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    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1991, § 102)(4), Pub. L. 101–611, (November 16, 1990); National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1992 § 2(6), Pub. L. 102–195, 105 Stat. 1605 (December 9, 1991).

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    NASA Policy Directive 8710, Policy to Limit Orbital Debris Generation; U.S. Space Command (USSPACECOM) Regulation 57–2, Minimization and Mitigation of Space Debris (June 6, 1991). Elizabeth Waldrop, Integration of Military and Civilian Space Assets: Legal and National Security Obligations, 55 A.F. L. Rev. 157 (2004).

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    Christopher Williams, Space: The Cluttered Frontier, 60 J. Air L. & Com. 1139, 1166 (1995). But see, Jennifer Seymour, Containing the Cosmic Crisis: A Proposal for Curbing the Perils of Space Debris, 10 Geo. Int’l Envt’l. L. Rev. 891 (1998), who contends, “Although the U.S. government has made efforts to address the space debris problem, particularly through the National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA), there is no official U.S. policy regarding space debris.” Ibid. at 903. This is incorrect, and was at the time it was published. The 1996 Clinton National Space Policy specifically addressed space debris, stating that, “The United States shall seek to minimize the creation of orbital debris by government and non-government operations in space in order to preserve the space environment for future generations.” It also calls upon the United States to take a leadership role in international fora and international organizations to adopt policies and practices aimed at debris minimization and mitigation practices.

  147. 147.

    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1993 § 101(10), Pub. L. 102–588, 106 Stat. 5107 (November 4, 1992). In 1988, President Reagan issued a policy condemning space debris. See Gunnar Leinberg, Orbital Space Debris, 4 J. L. & Tech. 93, 106 (1989). See also Daria Diaz, Trashing the Final Frontier: An Examination of Space Debris from a Legal Perspective, 6 Tul. Envt’l L.J. 369 (1993).

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    National Security Presidential Directive, August 31, 2006, “National Space Policy” ¶ 11 (2006); http://www.ostp.gov/html/US%20National%20Space%20Policy.pdf (accessed: October 9, 2006).

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    National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 1992 § 2(6), Pub. L. 102–195, 105 Stat. 1605 (December 9, 1991).

  150. 150.

    U.S. General Ass. Res. 1721 (December 20, 1961), reproduced in Paul Stephen Dempsey, Space Law III.B1-1 (2004).

  151. 151.

    US Department of Commerce, Trends in Space Commercialization, republished in Paul Stephen Dempsey, Space Law IV.B.United States.6-2 (2004).

  152. 152.

    David Whalen, Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible, at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html (accessed: May 20, 2004).

  153. 153.

    David Whalen, Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible, at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html (accessed: May 20, 2004).

  154. 154.

    http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Defining-chron.htm (accessed: May 17, 2004).

  155. 155.

    David Whalen, Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible, at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html (accessed: May 20, 2004).

  156. 156.

    Regina A. LaCroix, Developments in International Satellite Communications in The International Space Year, 1 CommLaw Conspectus 99, 100 (1993).

  157. 157.

    Henry Wong, 2001: A Space Legislation Odyssey – A Proposed Model for Reforming the Intergovernmental Satellite Organizations, 48 Am. U.L. Rev. 547 (1998).

  158. 158.

    In 1999, the FCC opened access to INTELSAT to nonaffiliated carriers at wholesale rates, and without the requirement to purchase bundled services.. In re Direct Access to the INTELSAT System, 14 FCCR 15703 (1999). Kenneth Katkin, Cable Open Access and Direct Access to INTELSAT, 53 Case W. Res. 77 (2002).

  159. 159.

    David Whalen, Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible, at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html (accessed: May 20, 2004).

  160. 160.

    http://samadhi.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/Programs/INTELSAT.html (accessed: 26 April 2004).

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    Paul Stephen Dempsey, Compliance and Enforcement in International Law – Oil Pollution of the Marine Environment by Ocean Vessels, 6 Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business 459–561 (1984); Paul Stephen Dempsey & Lisa Helling, Oil Pollution by Ocean Vessels – An Environmental Tragedy: The Legal Regime of Flags of Convenience, Multilateral Conventions and Coastal States, 10 Denver Journal of International Law & Policy 37–87 (1980). Inmarsat was privatized in 1999. Alan Aukenthaler, Update on Recent Activities of Inmarsat, 25 Annals of Air & Space L. 301 (2000).

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    Charles H. Kennedy and M. Veronica Pastor, An Introduction to International Telecommunications Law 47 (1996); Henri Wassenbergh, Access of Private Entities to Airspace and Outer Space, 24 Annals of Air & Space L. 311, 330 (1999).

  163. 163.

    Above 890 Decision, 27 FCC 359 (1959).

  164. 164.

    In re Applications of Microwave Communications, Inc., 18 FCC2nd 953 (1969).

  165. 165.

    Paul Stephen Dempsey, Adam Smith Assaults Ma Bell With His Invisible Hands: Divestiture, Deregulation, and the Need for a New Telecommunications Policy, 11 Hastings Communications and Entertainment Law Journal 527, 542–45 (1989).

  166. 166.

    David Whalen, Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible, at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html (accessed: May 20, 2004).

  167. 167.

    In The Matter of Establishment of Domestic Communication-Satellite Facilities by Nongovernmental Entities (Docket No. 16495), 22 F.C.C.2d 86 (1970).

  168. 168.

    22 F.C.C. 2nd at 86. With regard to INTELSAT, the FCC recognized the need to coordinate “with INTELSAT on such matters as use of frequencies, use of particular parking positions in synchronous orbit and prevention of interference. In addition, we should explore with INTELSAT the feasibility and desirability of such matters as joint research and development, use of available facilities for tracking, telemetry, and control, joint spares on the ground and in orbit, etc., so as to promote not only domestic operations but also the global system.” 22 F.C.C. 2nd at 100.

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    35 F.C.C. 2nd 844 (1972); 38 F.C.C.2nd 665 (1972).

  170. 170.

    The FCC believed that, “multiple entry is most likely to produce a fruitful demonstration of the extent to which the satellite technology may be used to provide existing and new specialized services more economically and efficiently ….” 35 F.C.C.2nd 844 (1972).

  171. 171.

    Application of Western Union Telegraph Co., 86 F.C.C.2nd 196 (1981).

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    Western Union Telegraph Co., 38 FCC2nd 1197 (1973); RCA Global Communications, 56 FCC 2nd 660 (1975).

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  174. 174.

    Robert Wold, Legal Legacies: Milestones in Satellite History, Via Satellite (March 1, 2003).

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    35 FCC 2nd 844 (1972). The FCC embraced a policy allowing applicants “to demonstrate how any operational and economic characteristics peculiar to the satellite technology can be used to provide existing and new specialized services more economically and efficiently than can be done by terrestrial facilities.” 35 FCC 2d 844, 846 (1972). 54 FCC 2nd 881 (1975).

  176. 176.

    See Paul Stephen Dempsey, Adam Smith Assaults Ma Bell with his Invisible Hands: Divestiture, Deregulation, and the Need for a New Telecommunications Policy, 11 Hastings Communications and Entertainment Law Journal 527–606 (1989).

  177. 177.

    54 FCC 2nd 881 (1975).

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    1986 FCC Lexis 2855 (1986).

  179. 179.

    1986 FCC Lexis 2818 (1986).

  180. 180.

    47 CFR § 25.104 (2004).

  181. 181.

    In the Matter of Inquiry into the development of regulatory policy in regard to Direct Broadcast Satellites for the period following the 1983 Regional Administrative Radio Conference, 86 FCC 2nd 719 (1981). Michael C. Rau, Allocating Spectrum By Market Forces: The FCC Ultra Vires? 37 Cath. U.L. Rev. 149, 168 (1987); Stephen F. Varholy, Preserving the Public Interest: A Topical Analysis of Cable/DBS Crossownership in the Rulemaking for the Direct Broadcast Satellite Service, 7 CommLaw Conspectus 173 (1999).

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    47 U.S.C. § 335 (2004).

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    US Department of Commerce, Trends in Space Commercialization, republished in Paul Stephen Dempsey, Space Law IV.B.United States.6–2 (2004).

  184. 184.

    Craig Couvalt, Satcoms = $7 Billion, Av. Week & Space Tech. 26 (September 15, 2003).

  185. 185.

    Transponder Sales Order, 90 FCC2nd 1238 (1982), aff’d sub nom., World Communications v. FCC, 735 F.2nd 1465 (D.C. Cir. 1984).

  186. 186.

    In re Martin Marietta Comm. System, 60 Rad. Reg. 2nd (P & F) 779 (1986). Peter K. Pitsch & Arthur W. Bresnahan, Common Carrier Regulation of Telecommunications Contracts and the Private Carrier Alternative, 48 Fed. Comm. L.J. 447, 465–66 (1996).

  187. 187.

    US Department of Commerce, Trends in Space Commercialization, republished in Paul Stephen Dempsey, Space Law IV.B. United States.6-2 (2004).

  188. 188.

    59 Fed. Reg. 53294 (October 21, 1994).

  189. 189.

    David Whalen, Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible, at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html (accessed: May 20, 2004).

  190. 190.

    Jurgen Cloppenburg, The Future Regulation of Global Mobile Personnel Communications by Satellite: A Farewell to Lex Americana? 25 Annals of Air & Space L. 83, 90–91 (2000).

  191. 191.

    Wireless communications have grown tremendously in recent years. According to the FCC, “Since 1990, wireless communications have grown rapidly and are now increasingly gaining acceptance as an alternative to wireline telephony. Advances in technology, increased investment, and the advent of Personal Communication Services (PCS) and digital technologies have fueled a rapid expansion of commercial mobile wireless networks carrying cellular-type service n30 and the number of wireless providers has increased substantially. In 1990 there were approximately 5,283,000 cellular users served by 5,600 cell sites throughout the United States and by 2002, cellular service had grown to encompass approximately 140,766,842 users served by 131,350 cell sites. Since then, wireless services have continued to grow steadily. Six wireless providers now offer nationwide services and others offer regional and local services.” 19 FCC Rcd 3373 (2004) (citations omitted).

  192. 192.

    US Department of Commerce, Trends in Space Commercialization, republished in Paul Stephen Dempsey, Space Law IV.B.United States.6-2 (2004).

  193. 193.

    40 Stat. 411 (1917), as amended by Pub. L. 106–207 (September 22, 2000).

  194. 194.

    See Ram Jakhu and Joseph Wilson, The New United States Export Control Regime: Its Impact on the Communications Satellite Industry, 25 Annals of Air & Space L. 157 (2000).

  195. 195.

    50 U.S.C. § 2402(2) (2004).

  196. 196.

    15 CFR Parts 730–773 (2004).

  197. 197.

    22 U.S.C. § 2778(a)(1) (2004).

  198. 198.

    22 CFR § 120.7 (2004).

  199. 199.

    Michael Klaus, Dual-Use Free Trade Agreements: The Contemporary Alternative to High-Tech Export Controls, 32 Denv. J. Int’l L. & Pol’y 105 (2003).

  200. 200.

    Pub. L. 105–261.

  201. 201.

    Paul Larsen, Future Protocol on Security Interests in Space Assets, 67 J. Air L. & Com. 1071, 1096 (2002).

  202. 202.

    “Industry officials complain that this crackdown on technology exports is creating a licensing logjam, which makes foreign companies hesitant to hire U.S. corporations to build new satellites.” Ram Jakhu and Joseph Wilson, The New United States Export Control Regime: Its Impact on the Communications Satellite Industry, 25 Annals of Air & Space L. 157, 179 (2000).

  203. 203.

    See Paul Stephen Dempsey, Aviation Security: The Role of Law in the War Against Terrorism, 41 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 649 (2003).

  204. 204.

    Christopher Corr, The Wall Still Stands! Complying with Export Controls on Technology Transfers in the Post-Cold War, Post 9/11 Era, 25 Hous. J. Int’l L. 441 (2003).

  205. 205.

    David Whalen, Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible, at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html (accessed: May 20, 2004).

  206. 206.

    FAA, Commercial Space Transportation: 2007 Year in Review, at 7. http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/2007_Year_In_Review_Jan_2008.pdf

  207. 207.

    US Department of Commerce, Trends in Space Commercialization, republished in Paul Stephen Dempsey, Space Law IV.B.United States.6-2 (2004).

  208. 208.

    49 U.S.C. Subtitle IX, §§ 70101–70119 (2004); 14 CFR Parts 400–450 (2004).

  209. 209.

    However, “amateur rocket activities" are not licensed by the FAA, although an Experimental Airworthiness Certificate may be required. Such launch activities conducted at private sites must satisfy the following characteristics:

    • Powered by a motor(s) having a total impulse of 200,000 pound-seconds or less;

    • Total burning or operating time of less than 15 seconds; and

    • A ballistic coefficient – i.e., gross weight in pounds divided by frontal area of rocket vehicle-less than 12 pounds per square inch. 14 CFR § 401.5 (2004).

  210. 210.

    68 Fed. Reg. 59977 (October 20, 2003). The CLSA gave the FAA jurisdiction to regulate commercial space activities, “only to the extent necessary to ensure compliance with international obligations of the United States and to protect the public health and safety, safety of property, and national security and foreign policy interest of the United States, … encourage, facilitate, and promote commercial space launches by the private sector, ·recommend appropriate changes in Federal statutes, treaties, regulations, policies, plans, and procedures, and facilitate the strengthening and expansion of the United States space transportation infrastructure.”

  211. 211.

    http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/launch_data/historical_launch/ (accessed: 28 July 2008).

  212. 212.

    FAA, Commercial Space Transportation: 2007 Year in Review, at 6. http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/2007_Year_In_Review_Jan_2008.pdf

  213. 213.

    http://apo.faa.gov/foreca03/CHAP9-04.pdf (accessed: May 17, 2004).

  214. 214.

    Bill Gunston, Aviation: The First 100 Years 10 (2002).

  215. 215.

    US Department of Commerce, Trends in Space Commercialization, republished in Paul Stephen Dempsey, Space Law IV.B.United States.6-2 (2004).

  216. 216.

    http://ast.faa.gov/aboutast/ (accessed: May 17, 2004).

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    Paul Stephen Dempsey

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  1. Faculty Law, McGill University, Peel Street 3690, Montreal, H3A 1X1, Québec, Canada

    Ram S. Jakhu

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Dempsey, P.S. (2010). Overview of the United States Space Policy and Law. In: Jakhu, R. (eds) National Regulation of Space Activities. Space Regulations Library Series, vol 5. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9008-9_16

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