Abstract
The Netherlands is known worldwide for their tolerance and multiculturalism. In addition to their permissive drug and prostitution policies and early adoption of gay marriage legislation, the country has long acted as a “Promised Land” for religious refugees and, more recently, implemented explicit multicultural policies of the 1980s and 1990s to promote immigrant immigration. Thus, The Netherlands has long been a receiving nation for immigrants, particularly those seeking religious freedom and opportunities in a thriving trade-based economy. This history, combined with the Dutch history of colonialism, resulting in migrants from former colonies, and their recruitment of “guest workers” in the 1960s and 1970s, has resulted in considerable racial diversity among the population, as well as significant stratification and conflict. Recently, like much of Europe, Dutch popular and political discourse has shifted to the right alongside a corresponding enactment of restrictive immigration policies that reversed many of their multicultural policies. This chapter highlights the history of race, racial diversity, and racism in The Netherlands that laid the foundation for its diversity today. Following this historical overview, the chapter addresses current demographic and socioeconomic trends, contemporary immigration policies, and racial attitudes and concludes with speculation of the nation’s racial future.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsNotes
- 1.
The Netherlands meticulously documents its population with regular press releases from the national Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (www.cbs.nl), upon which data for this chapter primarily relies, in regards to topics ranging from general demographics, to health, crime, and employment.
- 2.
Most research regarding Moluccan educational and occupational attainment uses 1990 data (with the exception of van Ours and Veenman 2008, which uses data from 2000). Therefore, it may be outdated and the continued integration of this immigrant group warrants continued research.
- 3.
There are some caveats to this. For example, government officials will not speak English on the phone and those who have not learned Dutch are not taken as seriously in situations ranging from simply shopping to attempting to acquire a job as those who have.
- 4.
In the last 5 years, the population from Eastern Europe, particularly Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania, has doubled due to the in-migration of nearly 150,000 from these nations.
- 5.
In 1975, the Dutch government gave Surinamese five years to decide whether to apply for Dutch citizenship.
References
Ahmad, A. N. (2004). Home front. Mute, 1(27), 30–32.
Ali, A. H. (2008). Infidel. New York: Free Press.
Alkan, M. (2001). Parents, racism and education: Some issues relating to parental involvement by Turkish and Moroccan Communities in The Netherlands. Paper presented at the European Network About Parents in Education conference, Rotterdam.
Balibar, E. (1991). Is there a ‘neo-racism’? In E. Balibar & I. Wallerstein (Eds.), Race, nation, class: Ambiguous identities (pp. 17–28). London: Verso.
Bartels, D. (1986). Can the train ever be stopped again? developments in the Moluccan community in The Netherlands before and after the Hijackings. Indonesia, 42, 23–45.
Bartels, D. (1990, March 16–18). From Black Dutchmen to White Moluccans: Ethnic metamorphosis of an East Indonesian minority in The Netherlands. Paper presented at the conference on Maluku Research, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Honolulu.
Bartels, E. (2003). Moroccan girls and youth literature in The Netherlands: A way to broaden the boundaries? Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 23(1), 147–162.
Bijl, P. (2012). Colonial memory and forgetting in The Netherlands and Indonesia. Journal of Genocide Research, 14(3–4), 441–461.
Blakely, A. (1993). Blacks in the Dutch world: The evolution of racial imagery in the modern society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Bobo, L., Kleugel, J. R., & Smith, R. A. (1997). The crystallization of a kinder, gentler, antiblack ideology. In S. A. Tuch & J. K. Martin (Eds.), Racial attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and change (pp. 15–40). Westport: Praeger.
Böcker, A. (2000). Paving the way to a better future: Turks in The Netherlands. In H. Vermeulen & R. Penninx (Eds.), Immigrant integration: The Dutch case (pp. 153–177). Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.
Bonilla-Silva, E. (1997). Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62(3), 465–480.
Bonilla-Silva, E. (2000). ‘This is a white country’: The racial ideology of the western nations of the world-system. Sociological Inquiry, 70(2), 188–214.
Bonilla-Silva, E. (2006). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Boog, I., van Donselaar, J., Houtzager, D., Rodrigues, P., & Schriemer, R.. (2006). Monitor Rassendiscriminatie 2005 [Racial discrimination monitor 2005]. Leiden: Universiteit van Leiden.
Bovenkerk, F. (2000). The other side of the Anne Frank story: The Dutch role in the persecution of the Jews in World War Two. Crime, Law and Social Change, 34(3), 237–258.
Bovenkerk, F., Gras, M. J. I., Ramsoedh, D., Dankoor, M., & Havelaar, A. (1995). Discrimination against migrant workers and ethnic minorities in access to employment in The Netherlands (International Migration Papers 4). Geneva: International Labor Office.
Brown, A.-K. (2012). Trapped by narcissism: A disillusioned Dutch society. Macalester International, 30(1), 22–46.
Brug, P. (2006). The diversity challenge: The representation of ethnic minorities in the Dutch educational system. In W. R. Allen, M. Bonous-Hammarth, & R. T. Teranishi (Eds.), Higher education in a global society: Achieving diversity, equity and excellence (pp. 149–158). Amsterdam: Elsevier JAI.
Buruma, I. (2007). Murder in Amsterdam: The death of Theo Van Gogh and the limits of tolerance. New York: Penguin.
Cain, A. (2007). Social mobility of ethnic minorities in The Netherlands: The peculiarities of social class and ethnicity. Delft: Eburon.
Cain, A. (2010). Ambiguous citizenship as impediment to social mobility in The Netherlands: The case of Afro-Caribbean Dutch. Journal of Contemporary Thought, 32, 141–156.
Carle, R. (2006). Demise of Dutch multiculturalism. Society, 43(3), 68–74.
Central Bureau voor Statistiek. (2010). Jaarrapport Integratie 2010. The Hague: CBS.
Central Bureau voor Statistiek. (2013). www.cbs.nl
Cheng, S., Martin, L., & Werum, R. (2007). Adult social capital and track placement of ethnic groups in Germany. American Journal of Education, 114(1), 41–74.
Corn, C. (1999). The scents of Eden: A history of the spice trade. New York: Kodashna International.
Cornell, S., & Hartmann, D. (2007). Ethnicity and race: Making identities in a changing world (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press.
Croes, M. (2006). The Holocaust in the Netherlands and the rate of Jewish survival. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 20(3), 474–499.
Crul, M. (2007). The integration of immigrant youth. In M. M. Suárez-Orozco (Ed.), Learning in the global era: International perspectives on globalization and education (pp. 213–231). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Crul, M., & Doomernik, J. (2003). The Turkish and Moroccan second generation in The Netherlands: Divergent trends between and polarization within the two groups. International Migration Review, 37(4), 1039–1064.
Crul, M., & Holdaway, J. (2009). Children of immigrants in schools in New York and Amsterdam: The factors shaping attainment. Teachers College Record, 111(6), 1476–1507.
Crul, M., & Schneider, J. (2009). Children of Turkish immigrants in Germany and The Netherlands: The impact of differences in vocational and academic tracking systems. Teachers College Record, 111(6), 1508–1527.
Dalstra, K. (1983). The South Moluccan minority in The Netherlands. Contemporary Crises, 7, 195–208.
Dates, J. L., & Barlow, W. (1993). Split image: African Americans in the mass media (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press.
Davis, K. (2009). Black is beautiful in European perspective. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 16(2), 99–101.
de Graaf, W., & van Zenderen, K. (2009). Segmented assimilation in The Netherlands? Young migrants and early school leaving. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32(8), 1470–1488.
de Haan, M., & Elbers, E. (2005). Reshaping diversity in a local classroom: Communication and identity issues in multicultural schools in The Netherlands. Language and Communication, 25(3), 315–333.
de Hond, M. (2013, October 22). Aanpassen uiterlijk Zwarte Piet is wens Amsterdammers en GroenLinks Stemmers. peil.nl.
de Leeuw, S., & Rydin, I. (2007). Migrant children’s digital stories: Identity formation and self-representation through media production. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 10(4), 447–464.
de Vos, M. (2009). The return of the canon: Transforming Dutch history teaching. History Workshop Journal, 67(1), 111–124.
De Zwart, F., & Poppelaars, C. (2007). Redistribution and ethnic diversity in The Netherlands: Accommodation, denial and replacement. Acta Sociologica, 50(4), 387–399.
Den Uyl, M., & Brouwer, L. (2009). ‘Mix, just mix and see what happens’: Girls in a super-diverse Amsterdam neighborhood. In S. Alghasi, T. H. Eriksen, & H. Ghorashi (Eds.), Paradoxes of cultural recognition: Perspectives from Northern Europe (pp. 201–218). Farnham: Palgrave.
Doomernik, J. (1998). The effectiveness of integration policies towards immigrants and their descendants in France, Germany and The Netherlands. Geneva: ILO.
Drescher, S. (1994). The long goodbye: Dutch capitalism and antislavery in comparative perspective. The American Historical Review, 99(1), 44–69.
Driessen, G. (2000). The limits of educational policy and practice? The case of ethnic minorities in The Netherlands. Comparative Education, 36(1), 5–72.
Driessen, G. W. J. M., & Bezemer, J. J. (1999). Backgrounds and achievement levels of Islamic schools in the Netherlands: Are the reservations justified? Race Ethnicity and Education, 2(2), 235–256.
Emmer, P. (1972). History of the Dutch slave trade. The Journal of Economic History, 32(3), 728–747.
Engbersen, G., & van der Leun, J. (2001). The social construction of illegality and criminality. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 9(1), 51–70.
Entzinger, H. (2003). The rise and fall of multiculturalism: The case of The Netherlands. In C. Joppke & E. Morawaska (Eds.), Toward assimilation and citizenship: Immigrants in liberal nation states (pp. 59–86). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Essed, P. (1991). Understanding everyday racism: An interdisciplinary theory. Newbury Park: Sage.
Essed, P. (1993). The politics of marginal inclusion: Racism in an organisational context. In J. Wrench & J. Solomos (Eds.), Racism and migration in western Europe (pp. 143–156). Oxford: Berg.
Essed, P. (2002). Cloning cultural homogeneity while talking diversity: Old wine in new bottles in Dutch work organizations. Transforming Anthropology, 11(1), 2–11.
Essed, P., & Nimako, K. (2006). Designs and (Co)incidents: Cultures of scholarship and public policy on immigrants/minorities in The Netherlands. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 47(3–4), 281–312.
Essed, P., & Trienekens, S. (2008). Who wants to feel white?’ Race, Dutch culture, and contested identities. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(1), 52–72.
Euwals, R., Dagevos, J., Gijsberts, M., & Roodenburg, H. (2007). Immigration, integration and the labour market: Immigrants in Germany and The Netherlands (IZA Discussion Paper No. 2677). Available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=978762. Accessed 12 Feb 2011.
Feagin, J. R. (1987). The continuing significance of race: Antiblack discrimination in public places. American Sociological Review, 56(1), 101–116.
Feagin, J. R. (2006). Systemic racism: A theory of oppression. New York: Routledge.
Feagin, J. R. (2009). The white racial frame: Centuries of racial framing and counter-framing. New York: Routledge.
Foote, T. W. (2004). Black and white Manhattan: The history of racial formation in colonial New York City. New York: Oxford University Press.
Frankenberg, R. (1993). White women, race matters: The social construction of whiteness. London: Routledge.
Fredrickson, G. M. (1971). The black image in the white mind: The debate on Afro-American character and destiny, 1817–1914. New York: Harper & Row.
Fredrickson, G. M. (1981). White supremacy: A comparative study in American and South African history. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gabriel, J. (1998). Whitewash: Racialized politics and the media. New York: Routledge.
Ghorashi, H. (2009). National identity and the sense of (non-) belonging: Iranians in the United States and The Netherlands. In S. Alghasi, T. H. Eriksen, & H. Ghorashi (Eds.), Paradoxes of cultural recognition: Perspectives from Northern Europe (pp. 75–88). Farnham: Palgrave.
Ghorashi, H. (2010). From absolute invisibility to extreme visibility: Emancipation trajectory of migrant women in The Netherlands. Feminist Review, 94(1), 75–92.
Ghorashi, H., & van Tilburg, M. (2006). When is my Dutch good enough? Experiences of refugee women with Dutch labour organisations. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 7(1), 51–70.
Gramberg, P. (1998). School segregation: The case of Amsterdam. Urban Studies, 35(3), 547–564.
Grever, M., Haydn, T., & Ribbens, K. (2008). Identity and school history: The perspective of young people from The Netherlands and England. British Journal of Educational Studies, 56(1), 76–94.
Grinstein, H. B. (1947). The rise of the Jewish Community of New York, 1654–1860. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America.
Grosfoguel, R., & Mielants, E. (2006). Minorities, racism and cultures of scholarship. Journal of Comparative Sociology, 47(3–4), 179–189.
Hagendoorn, L., & Hraba, J. (1989). Foreign, different, deviant, seclusive and working class: Anchors to an ethnic Hierarchy in The Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 12(4), 441–468.
Hartog, J., & Zorlu, A. (2009). How important is homeland education for refugees’ economic position in The Netherlands. Journal of Population Economics, 22(1), 219–246.
Heath, A. F., Rothon, C., & Kilpi, E. (2008). The second generation in Western Europe: Education, unemployment, and occupational attainment. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 211–235.
Helsloot, J. (2012). Zwarte piet and cultural aphasia in The Netherlands. Quotidian: Dutch Journal for the Study of Everyday Life, 3(1). http://www.quotidian.nl/vol03/nr01/a01
Hira, S. (2012). Decolonizing the mind: The case of The Netherlands. Human Architecture, 10(1), 53–68.
Hondius, D. (2009). Race and the Dutch: On the uneasiness surrounding racial issues in The Netherlands. In S. Alghasi, T. H. Eriksen, & H. Ghorashi (Eds.), Paradoxes of cultural recognition: Perspectives from northern Europe (pp. 39–57). Farnham: Ashgate.
Hondius, D. (2011). Access to the Netherlands of enslaved and free black Africans: Exploring legal and social historical practices in the sixteenth–nineteenth centuries. Slavery and Abolition, 32(3), 377–395.
Horton, J., & Kardux, J. C. (2005). Slavery and public memory in the United States and The Netherlands. New York Journal of American History, 66(2), 35–52.
Houtzager, D., & Rodrigues, P. R. (2002). Migrants, minorities and employment in The Netherlands. Exclusion, discrimination and anti-discrimination. Raxen3 Report to the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC), Vienna.
Hustinx, P. W. J. (2002). School careers of pupils of ethnic minority background after the transition to secondary education: Is the ethnic factor always negative?”. Educational Research and Evaluation, 8(2), 169–195.
Jacobs, D. (2002). Access to citizenship of the population of foreign origin in The Netherlands. Migracijske I EtničkeTeme, 18(2–3), 243–257.
Jacobs, D., & Rea, A. (2007). The end of national models? Integration courses and citizenship trajectories in Europe. International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 9(2), 264–283.
Kalmijn, M., & Kraaykamp, G. (2003). Drop out and downward mobility in the educational career: An event-history analysis of ethnic schools differences in The Netherlands. Educational Research and Evaluation, 9(3), 265–287.
Kapelle, J., & Tang, D. J. (2008). Zwart, Sambo, Tien Kleine Negertjes, Pijpje Drop, Pompernikkel en Anderen: Het Beeld van de Zwarte Mens in de Nederlandse Illustratiekunst 1880–1980. The Hague: Koninklijke Bibliotheek.
Klandermans, B., van der Toorn, J., & van Stekelenburg, J. (2008). Embeddedness and identity: How immigrants turn grievances into action. American Sociological Review, 73(6), 992–1012.
Kleinpenning, G. (1993). Structure and content of racist beliefs: An empirical study of ethnic attitudes, stereotypes and the ethnic hierarchy. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Utrecht University, Utrecht.
Koopmans, R. (2008). Tradeoffs between equality and difference: Immigrant integration, multiculturalism, and the welfare state in cross-national perspective. Berlin: Social Science Research Center.
Ladd, H. F., Fiske, E. B., & Ruijs, N. (2009, October). Parental choice in The Netherlands: Growing concerns about segregation. Paper presented at the National Conference on School Choice, Vanderbilt University.
Lape, P. (2000). Contact and colonialism in the Banda Islands, Maluku, Indonesia. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 4, 48–55.
Lechner, F. J. (2008). The Netherlands: Globalization and national identity. New York: Routledge.
Leeman, Y. (2007). Dutch urban schools and teachers’ professionalism. In W. T. Pink & G. W. Noblit (Eds.), International handbook of urban education (pp. 523–538). Dordrecht: Springer.
Leeman, Y., & Saharso, S. (1991). Coping with discrimination: How Moroccan, Moluccan and Creole-Surinamese youth deal with discrimination in Holland. European Journal of Intercultural Studies, 1(3), 5–17.
Lindsay, D. (2008, December 5). Holland’s politically incorrect Christmas: Santa’s Little (slave) helper. Spiegel Online. Available at www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,594674,00.html. Accessed 12 Feb 2011.
Lofland, L. H. (2007). Urbanity, tolerance, and public space. In L. Deben, W. Heinemeijer, & D. van der Vaart (Eds.), Understanding Amsterdam: Essays on the economic vitality, city life and urban form (2nd ed., pp. 143–160). Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.
Lucassen, L. (1991). The power of definition, stigmatisation, minoritisation and ethnicity illustrated by the history of gypsies in The Netherlands. Netherlands Journal of Social Science, 27(2), 80–91.
Lucassen, L., & Lucassen, J. (2011). Winnaars en verliezers: Een nuchtere balans van vijfhonderd jaar immigratie. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker.
Lucassen, J., & Penninx, R. (1998). Newcomers: Immigrants and their descendants in The Netherlands 1550–1995. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.
Mak, G. (2001). Amsterdam: A brief life of the city. London: Vintage.
McIntosh, P. (1997). White privilege and male privilege: a personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women’s studies. In R. Delgado & J. Stefancic (Eds.), Critical white studies: looking behind the mirror (pp. 291–299). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Mielants, E. (2009). From the periphery to the core: A case study on the migration and incorporation of recent Caribbean immigrants in The Netherlands. In R. Grosfoguel, M. Cervantes-Rodríguez, & E. Mielants (Eds.), Caribbean migration to the U.S. and western Europe: Essays on incorporation, identity, and citizenship (pp. 58–93). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Modood, T. (2007). Multiculturalism. Boston: Polity Press.
Mollenkopf, J. (2007). Assimilating immigrants in Amsterdam: A perspective from New York. In L. Deben, W. Heinemeijer, & D. van der Vaart (Eds.), Understanding Amsterdam: Essays on the economic vitality, city life and urban form (2nd ed., pp. 197–218). Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.
Mollenkopf, J., & Hochschild, J. (2010). Immigrant political incorporation: comparing success in the United States & Western Europe. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(1), 19–38.
Muhlenfeld, A. (1944). The Dutch west indies in peace and war. International Affairs, 20(1), 81–93.
Mullard, C., Nimako, K., & Willemsen, G. (1991). Kleurloos Onderzoek: Over hetAandeel van Etnische Onderzoekers in het Minderhedenonderzoek (CRES Research Paper No. 5). Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam.
Multatuli. (1987) [1860]. Max Havelaar: Or the coffee auctions of a Dutch Trading Company (R. Edwards, Trans.). New York: Penguin.
Nelissen, C., & Buijs, F. J. (2000). Between continuity and change: Moroccans in The Netherlands. In H. Vermeulen & R. Penninx (Eds.), Immigrant integration: The Dutch case (pp. 178–201). Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.
Nimako, K., & Small, S. (2012). Collective memory of slavery in Great Britain and The Netherlands. In S. Small, M. Schalkwijk, & S. Small (Eds.), New perspectives on slavery and colonialism in the Caribbean (pp. 92–115). The Hague/Amsterdam: Amrit/NiNsee.
Nimako, K., & Willemsen, G. (2011). The Dutch Atlantic: Slavery, abolition and emancipation. London: Pluto Press.
NRC Handelsblad. (2013, July 5). Nederlandse Canon. 12.
Omi, M., & Winant, H. (1994). Racial formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Oostindie, G. J. (1988). Caribbean migration to The Netherlands: A journey to disappointment? In M. Cross & H. Entzinger (Eds.), Lost illusions: Caribbean minorities in Britain and The Netherlands (pp. 54–72). London: Routledge.
Oostindie, G. J. (2005). Paradise overseas, the Dutch Caribbean: Colonialism and its transnational legacies. Oxford, UK: Macmillan Education.
Oostindie, G. J. (2009). Public memories of the Atlantic slave trade and slavery in contemporary Europe. European Review, 17(3–4), 611–626.
Ouarasse, O. A., & van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2005). The role of demographic variables and acculturation attitudes in predicting sociocultural and psychological adaptation in Moroccans in the Netherlands. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(3), 251–272.
Parker, C. H. (2008). Faith on the margins: Catholics and catholicism in the Dutch golden age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Paulle, B. (2005). Anxiety and intimidation in the Bronx and the Bijlmer: An ethnographic comparison of two schools. Amsterdam: Dutch University Press.
Pels, T. (2001). Student disengagement and pedagogical climate. Paper presented at the sixth International Metropolis conference, Rotterdam.
Penninx, R. (2006). Dutch immigrant policies before and after the Van Gogh Murder. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 7(2), 241–254.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Meertens, R. W. (1996). The Verzuiling Puzzle: Understanding Dutch intergroup relations. Current Psychology, 15(1), 3–13.
Postma, J. (1972). Dimension of the Dutch slave trade from Western Africa. Journal of African History, 13(2), 237–248.
Radio Netherlands Worldwide. (2011, May 11). Minorities fear second-class citizenship. Available at: http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/minorities-fear-second-class-citizenship. Accessed 12 Feb 2011.
Ramnares, R. P. S. (2010). A person on her own is bound to drown: Experiences of female ethnic minority students at Two Dutch Universities. Master’s thesis, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam.
Rath, J. (2001). Research on immigrant ethnic minorities in The Netherlands. In P. Ratcliffe (Ed.), The politics of social science research: Race, ethnicity and social change (pp. 137–159). New York: Palgrave.
Rijken, S., Maas, I., & Gantzeboom, H. B. G. (2007). The Netherlands: Access to higher education – Institutional arrangements and inequality of opportunity. In Y. Shavit, R. Arum, & A. Gamoran (Eds.), Stratification in higher education: A comparative study (pp. 266–293). Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.
Rijkschroeff, R., ten Dam, G., Duyvendak, J. W., de Gruijter, M., & Pels, T. (2005). Educational policies on migrants and minorities in The Netherlands: Success of failure. Journal of Education Policy, 20(4), 417–435.
Schama, S. (1997). The embarrassment of riches: An interpretation of Dutch culture in the golden age. New York: Vintage.
Scheffer, P. (2000, January 29). Het Multiculturele Drama [The multicultural drama]. NRC Handelsblad.
Siebers, H. (2009). Discrimination and cultural closure at work: Evidence form two Dutch organizations. In S. Alghasi, T. H. Eriksen, & H. Ghorashi (Eds.), Paradoxes of cultural recognition: Perspectives from northern Europe (pp. 91–109). Farnham: Ashgate.
Siebers, H. (2010). The impact of migrant-hostile discourse in the media and politics on racioethnic closure in career development in The Netherlands. International Sociology, 25(4), 475–500.
Small, S. (2011). Foreward. In K. Nimako & G. Willemsen (Eds.), The Dutch Atlantic: Slavery, abolition, and emancipation (pp. xii–xxi). London: Pluto Press.
Smeets, H., & Veenman, J. (2000). More and more at home: Three generations of Moluccans in The Netherlands. In H. Vermeulen & R. Penninx (Eds.), Immigrant integration, The Dutch case (pp. 36–63). Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.
Snel, E., de Boom, J., & Engbersen, G. (2005). Migration and migration policies in The Netherlands. Dutch SOPEMI Report. Rotterdam: Rotterdam Institute of Social Research, Erasmus University.
Sniderman, P. M., & Hagendoorn, L. (2009). When ways of life collide: Multiculturalism and its discontents in The Netherlands. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Social and Cultural Planning Office (SCP). (2003). Rapportage Minderheden 2003: Onderwijs, Arbeid en Sociaal-Culturele Integratie [Minority Report 2003: Education, work, and social-cultural integration]. The Hague: SCP.
Stevens, P. A. J., Clycq, N., Timmerman, C., & Van Houtte, M. (2011). Researching race/ethnicity and educational inequality in The Netherlands: A critical review of the research literature between 1980 and 2008. British Educational Research Journal, 37(1), 5–43.
Sturm, J., Goenendijk, L., Kruithof, B., & Rens, J. (1998). Educational pluralism: A historical study of so-called ‘pillarization’ in The Netherlands, including a comparison with some developments in South African education. Comparative Education, 34(3), 281–297.
Thränhardt, D. (2004). Turkish immigrants in Germany and The Netherlands: Facts and perceptions. In Integration of immigrants from Turkey in Australia, Holland, and Germany. Istanbul: Bogazici University.
Tolsma, J., Coenders, M., & Lubbers, M. (2007). Trends in ethnic educational inequalities in The Netherlands: A cohort design. European Sociological Review, 23(3), 325–339.
Turner, R. H. (1960). Sponsored and contest mobility and the school system. American Sociological Review, 25(6), 855–867.
van Amersfoort, H. (2004). The waxing and waning of a diaspora: Moluccans in The Netherlands, 1950–2002. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 30(1), 151–174.
van de Werfhorst, H. G., & van Tubergen, F. (2007). Ethnicity, schooling and merit in The Netherlands. Ethnicities, 7(3), 416–444.
van den Berg, M., & van Reekum, R. (2011). Parent involvement as professionalization: Professionals’ struggle for power in Dutch Urban deprived areas. Journal of Education Policy, 26(3), 415–430.
van der Valk, I. (2002). Difference, deviance, threat? Mainstream and right-extremist political discourse on ethnic issues in The Netherlands and France (1990–1997). Amsterdam: Aksant.
van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Elite discourse and racism. Newbury Park: Sage.
Van Niekirk, M. (2007). Second-generation Caribbeans in The Netherlands: Different migration histories, diverging trajectories. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33(7), 1063–1081.
van Ours, J. C., & Veenman, J. (1999). The Netherlands: Old immigrants – Young immigrant country. Paper presented at the “European migration: What do we know?” conference, Munich.
van Ours, J. C., & Veenman, J. (2003). The educational attainment of second-generation immigrants in The Netherlands. Journal of Population Economics, 16(4), 739–753.
van Ours, J. C., & Veenman, J. (2008). How interethnic marriages affect the educational attainment of children: Evidence from a natural experiment (CentER Discussion Paper No. 2008–07). Available online at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1092417.
van Stipriaan, A. (2006). Slavery in the Dutch Caribbean: The books no one has read. In J. De Barros, A. Diptee, & D. V. Trotman (Eds.), Beyond fragmentation: Perspectives on Caribbean history (pp. 69–92). Princeton: Marcus Wiener Publishers.
van Wel, F., Couwenbergh-Soeterboek, N., Couwenbergh, C., ter Bogt, T., & Raaijmakers, Q. (2006). Ethnicity, youth cultural participation, and cultural reproduction in the Netherlands. Poetics, 34(1), 65–82.
Vandenbosch, A. (1941). Dutch colonies in the western world. Journal of Politics, 3(3), 308–317.
Vasta, E. (2007). From ethnic minorities to ethnic majority policy: Multiculturalism and the shift to assimilationism in The Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(5), 713–740.
Vedder, P. (2006). Black and white schools in The Netherlands. European Education, 38(2), 36–49.
Veenman, J. (1990). De Arbeidsmarktpositie van Allochtonen in Nederland, in het Bijzonder van Molukkers. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.
Verkuyten, M. (2008). Life satisfaction among ethnic minorities: The role of discrimination and group identification. Social Indicators Research, 89(3), 391–404.
Verkuyten, M., & Slooter, L. (2008). Muslim and non-Muslim adolescents’ reasoning about freedom of speech and minority rights. Child Development, 79(3), 514–528.
Verkuyten, M., & Thijs, J. (2002). Multiculturalism among minority and majority adolescents in The Netherlands. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 26(1), 91–108.
Verkuyten, M., & Yildiz, A. A. (2007). National (dis)identification and ethnic and religious identity: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(10), 1448–1462.
Verkuyten, M., van de Calseijde, S., & de Leur, W. (1999). Third-generation south Moluccans in The Netherlands: The nature of ethnic identity. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 25(1), 63–79.
Vermeij, L. (2004). ‘Ya know what I’m Sayin’? The double meaning of language crossing among teenagers in The Netherlands. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 170, 141–168.
Vermeij, L., van Duijn, M., & Boerveldt, C. (2009). Ethnic segregation in context: Social discrimination among native Dutch pupils and their ethnic minority classmates. Social Networks, 31(4), 230–239.
Vermeulen, H. (2010). Segmented assimilation and cross-national comparative research on the integration of immigrants and their children. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(7), 1214–1230.
Vermeulen, H., & Penninx, R. (2000). Immigrant integration: The Dutch case. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.
Vink, M. (2003). ‘The world’s oldest trade’: Dutch slavery and slave trade in the Indian Ocean in the 17th century. Journal of World History, 14(2), 131–177.
Weiner, M. F. (2011). Racialized education in The Netherlands: Implications for immigrant youth. In S. Vandeyar (Ed.), Hyphenated selves: Immigrant minorities within educational contexts (pp. 31–55). Amsterdam: Rozenberg Publishers.
Weiner, M. F. (2014). (E)Racing slavery: Racial neoliberalism, social forgetting and scientific colonialism in Dutch primary school history textbooks. DuBois Review, 11(2), 329–351.
Wekker, G. (2009). Where the girls are…’: Some hidden gendered and ethnicized aspects of higher education in The Netherlands. In M. Nkomo & S. Vandeyar (Eds.), Thinking diversity, building cohesion: A transnational dialogue on education (pp. 151–164). Amsterdam: Rozenberg Publishers.
Winant, H. (2001). The world is a Ghetto: Race and democracy since World War II. New York: Basic Books.
Wodak, R., & van Dijk, T. A. (Eds.). (2000). Racism at the top: Parliamentary discourses on ethnic issues in six European States. Klagenfurt: Drava Verlag.
Yazer, J., & Kalkan, N. (2007). A rough way forward: The struggles of Allochtone students in Amsterdam Schools. Amsterdam: Humanity in Action.
Zuberi, T. (2008). Deracializing social statistics: Problems in the quantification of race. In T. Zuberi & E. Bonilla-Silva (Eds.), White logic, white methods: Racism and methodology (pp. 137–152). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Zunder, A. (2010). Herstelbetalingen: De ‘Wiedergutmachung’ voor de Schade die Suriname en haar Bevolking Hebben Geleden onder het Nederlands Kolonialisme. The Hague: Amrit.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Weiner, M.F. (2015). The Demography of Race and Ethnicity in The Netherlands: An Ambiguous History of Tolerance and Conflict. In: Sáenz, R., Embrick, D., Rodríguez, N. (eds) The International Handbook of the Demography of Race and Ethnicity. International Handbooks of Population, vol 4. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8891-8_27
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8891-8_27
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-90-481-8890-1
Online ISBN: 978-90-481-8891-8
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawSocial Sciences (R0)