Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Environmental Pollution ((EPOL,volume 17))

Abstract

One of the most important environmental concerns of today is the negative impact of pollution on human health. The air we breathe and the water we drink are essential ingredients for a healthy life. Unfortunately polluted water and air are common throughout the world. Over a day a healthy adult will consume between 2 and 3 l of fluid and inhale around 11 m3 of air. While exposure to pollutants in air is via inhalation that for water may occur via the ingestion, dermal absorption and inhalation routes. In this chapter we review the sources and concentrations of various air pollutants before considering drinking water quality. For the latter we concentrate on the potentially harmful disinfection by-products.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abd El-Shafy, M., & Grünwald, A. (2000). THM formation in water supply in south Bohemia, Czech Republic. Water Research, 34(13), 3453–3459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abt, E., Suh, H. H., Catalano, P., & Koutrakis, P. (2000). Relative contribution of outdoor and indoor particle sources to indoor concentrations. Environmental Science & Technology, 34, 3579–3587.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Andreae, M. O., & Crutzen, P. J. (1997). Atmospheric aerosols: Biochemical sources and role in atmospheric chemistry. Science, 276, 1052–1058.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bellar, T. A., Lichtenberg, J. J., & Kraner, R. C. (1974). The occurrence of organohalides in chlorinated drinking water. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 66, 703–706.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boorman, G. A., Dellarco, V., Dunnick, J. K., Chapin, R. E., Hunter, S., Hauchman, F., et al. (1999). Drinking water disinfection by-products: Review and approach to toxicity evaluation. Environmental Health Perspectives, 107, 207–217.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CAFE. (2004). Second position paper on particulate matter. CAFE working group on particulate matter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charlson, R. J., Langner, J., Rodhe, H., Leovy, C. B., & Warren, S. G. (1992). Climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols. Science, 255, 423–430.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dockery, D. W., Pope, C. A., Xu, X., Spengler, J. D., Ware, J. H., Fay, M. E., et al. (1993). An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities. New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 1753–1808.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EC. (1998). The Water Drinking Directive, 98/83/EC, European Commission.

    Google Scholar 

  • EMEP. 2002 Transboundary particulate matter in Europe: Status report 2002 (Tørseth, K., Tarrason, L., Markus Amman, Eds., EMEP Report 5/2002). Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller.

    Google Scholar 

  • EMEP. (2006). Transboundary particulate matter in Europe: Status report 2006 (EMEP Report 4/2006). Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller.

    Google Scholar 

  • EMEP/CCC. (2005a). Measurements of particulate matter: Status report 2005 (Karl Espen Yttri, Ed., EMEP/CCC Report 5/2005). Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller.

    Google Scholar 

  • EMEP/CCC. (2005b). Data report 2003. Acidifying and eutrophying compounds (EMEP/CCC Report 3/2005). Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller.

    Google Scholar 

  • EMEP/CCC. (2006). Ozone measurements 2004 (EMEP/CCC Report 2/2006). Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller.

    Google Scholar 

  • EMEP/CORINAIR. (2002). Atmospheric emission inventory guidebook (3rd ed.). Prepared by the EMEP Task force on Emission Inventories, EEA Technical Report No 30.

    Google Scholar 

  • EPA. (2003). Air quality criteria for particulate matter (EPA/600/P-99/002aD). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erisman, J. W., Otjes, R., Hensen, A., Jongejan, P., van den Bulk, P., Khlystov, A., et al. (2001). Instrument development and application in studies and monitoring of ambient ammonia. Atmospheric Environment, 35(11), 1913–1922.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Finlayson Pitts, B. J., & Pitts, J. N. (2000). Chemistry of the upper and lower atmosphere. San Diego: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finlayson-Pitts, B. J., & Pitts, J. N. (1986). Atmospheric chemistry: Fundamentals and experimental techniques. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galal-Gorchev, H., & Bartram, J. (1996). Health benefits of drinking-water disinfection. In Chlorine dioxide and disinfection, Proceedings of the first European symposium on chlorine dioxide and disinfection (pp. 41–49). Rome: C.I.P.A. ISSN 1121-8215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleick, P. H. (2006). The world’s water 2006–2007. Washington, DC: Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golfinopoulos, S. K. (2000). The occurrence of trihalomethanes in drinking water in Greece. Chemosphere, 41, 1761–1767.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grennfelt, P., & Schjoldager, J. (1984). Photochemical oxidants in the troposphere – A mounting menace. Ambio, 13(2), 61–67.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • HEI, Health Effects Institute. (2001). Airborne particles and health: HEI Epidemiologic evidence. Cambridge, MA: HEI.

    Google Scholar 

  • IPCC. (2001). Climate change 2001; the scientific basis. Contribution of Working group I to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J. T. Houghton et al., Eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, M. Z. (2002). Atmospheric pollution: History, science, and regulation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katsouyanni, K. (Ed.). (1996). The APHEA project. Short term effects of air pollution on health: A European approach using epidemiological time series data. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 50(suppl. 1), S1–S80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lachenmyer, C., & Hidy, G. M. (2000). Urban measurements of outdoor-indoor PM2.5 concentrations and personal exposure in the deep south. Part I. Pilot study of mass concentrations for nonsmoking subjects. Aerosol Science and Technology, 32, 34–51.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Larssen, S., Sluyter, R., & Helmis, C. (1999). Criteria for EUROAIRNET – The EEA Air Quality Monitoring and Information Network (EEA Topic cal report No 12). European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazaridis, M., Semb, A., Larssen, S., Hjellbrekke, A. G., Hov, Ø., Hanssen, J. E., et al. (2002). Measurements of particulate matter within the framework of the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme EMEP I. First results The Science of the Total Environment, 285, 209–235.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lebowitz, M. D., O’Rourle, M. K., Gordon, S., Moschandreas, D., & Nishioka, M. (1995). Population based exposure measurements in Arizona: A phase I field study in support of the national human exposure assessment survey. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 5, 297–235.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, J. I., Hammitt, J. K., & Spengler, J. D. (2000). Estimating the mortality impacts of particulate matter: What can be learned from between study variability? Environmental Health Perspectives, 108, 109–117.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lioy, P. J. (1990). Assessing total human exposure to contaminants. Environmental Science and Technology, 24, 938–945.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luks-Betlej, K., & Bodzek, D. (2002). Occurrence of trihalomethanes, particularly those containing bromine, in Polish drinking water. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 11, 255–260.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meng, Z. Y., & Seinfeld, J. H. (1996). Time scales to achieve atmospheric gas-aerosol equilibrium for volatile species. Atmospheric Environment, 30(16), 2889–2900.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morawska, L., He, C., Hitchins, J., Mengersen, K., & Gilbert, D. (2003). Characteristics of particle number and mass concentrations in Brisbane, Australia. Atmospheric Environment, 37, 4195–4203.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nero, A. V., Jr. (1988). Controlling indoor air pollution. Scientific American, 258, 42–48.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neuberger, M., Schimekc, M. G., Horak, F., Jr., Moshammerb, H., Kundib, M., Frischerd, T., et al. (2004). Acute effects of particulate matter on respiratory diseases, symptoms and functions: Epidemiological results of the Austrian Project on Health Effects of Particulate Matter (AUPHEP). Atmospheric Environment, 38, 3971–3981.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Toledano, M. B., Eaton, N., Fawell, J., & Elliott, P. (2000). Chlorination disinfection by-products in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: A review. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57, 73–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nissinen, T. K., Miettinen, I. T., Martikainen, P. J., & Vartiainen, T. (2002). Disinfection by-products in Finnish drinking water. Chemosphere, 48, 9–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palacios, M., Pampillón, J. F., & Rodriguez, M. E. (2000). Organohalogenated compounds levels in chlorinated drinking water and current compliance with quality standards throughout the European Union. Water Research, 34, 1002–1016.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pope, C. A., III, & Dockery, D. W. (2006). Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect. Journal of the Air & Waste Mangaement Association, 56, 709–742.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pope, C. A., Thun, M. J., Namboodiri, M. M., Dockery, D. W., Evans, J. S., Speizer, F. E., et al. (1995). Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of U.S. adults. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 151, 669–674.

    Google Scholar 

  • Premazzi, G., Cardoso, C., Conio, O., Palumbo, F., Ziglio, G., Borgioli, A., et al. (1997). Exposure of the European population to trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water – Volume 2 (112 pp.). European Commission Report EUR 17335. ISBN 92-828-0385-6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rombout, P., Bloemen, H., Bree, L., Buringh, E., Cassee, F., Fischer, P., et al. (2000). Health risks in relation to air quality, especially particulate matter. RIVM Report No. 650010 020.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rook, J. J. (1974). Formation of haloforms during chlorination of natural waters. Journal Society for Water Treatment and Examination, 23, 234–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sadiq, R., & Rodriguez, M. J. (2004). Disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water and predictive models for their occurrence: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 321, 21–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samet, J. M., Dominici, F., Zeger, S. L., Schwartz, J., & Dockery, D. W. (2000). The national morbidity, mortality and air pollution study, part I: Methods and methodologic issues (Research Report 94, Part I). Cambridge MA: Health Effects Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savoir, R., Romnee, L., & Masschelein, W. J. (1987). Assessment of chlorine dioxide as a means of limiting the formation of organohalogenated compounds. Aqua, 36, 114–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger, R. B. (1995). Toxicological evidence for health effects from inhaled particulate pollution: Does it support the human experience? Inhalation Toxicology, 7, 99–109.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, J. (2000). Assessing confounding, effect modification, and thresholds in the association between ambient particles and daily deaths. Environmental Health Perspectives, 108, 563–568.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seinfeld, J. H., & Pandis, S. N. (2006). Atmospheric chemistry and physics, from air pollution to climate change (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stack, M. A., Fitzgerald, G., O’Connell, S., & James, K. J. (2000). Measurement of trihalomethanes in potable and recreational waters using solid phase micro extraction with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Chemosphere, 41, 1821–1826.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Su, W.-H. (1996). Indoor air pollution resources. Conservation and Recycling, 16, 77–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, M. A., Asman, W. A. H., Ellermann, T., Van Jaarsveld, J. A., Acker, K., Aneja, V., et al. (2003). Establishing the link between ammonia emission control and measurements of reduced nitrogen concentrations and deposition. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 82(2), 149–185.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thatcher, T. L., & Layton, D. W. (1995). Deposition, resuspension, and penetration of particles within a residence. Atmospheric Environment, 29, 1487–1497.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2004). Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter (Report EPA/600/P-99/002aD). Washington, DC: USEPA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Zee, S. K., Hoek, G., Harssema, H., & Brunekreef, B. (1998). Characterization of particulate air pollution in urban and non-urban areas in the Netherlands. Atmospheric Environment, 32, 3717–3729.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Villanueva, C. M., Kogevinas, M., & Grimalt, J. O. (2003). Haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes in finished drinking waters from heterogeneous sources. Water Research, 37, 953–958.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, L. (2000). Correlations of personal exposure to particles with outdoor air measurements: A review of recent studies. Aerosol Science and Technology, 32, 15–25.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker, H., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Best, C., Fawell, J., Gowers, A., & Elliot, P. (2003). Description of trihalomethane levels in three UK water suppliers. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 13, 17–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woo, Y.-T., Lai, D., McLain, J. L., Manibusan, M. K., & Dellarco, V. (2002). Use of mechanism-based structure-activity relationships analysis in carcinogenic potential ranking for drinking water disinfection by-products. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110, 75–87.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO). (2000). Air quality guidelines for Europe (2nd ed., European Series, No. 91). Copenhagen: WHO Regional Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO). (2006). WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide – Global update 2005 – Summary of risk assessment. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zappoli, S., Andracchio, A., Fuzzi, S., Facchini, M. C., Gelencser, A., Kiss, G., et al. (1999). Inorganic, organic and macromolecular components of fine aerosol in different areas of Europe in relation to their water solubility. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 2733–2743.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mihalis Lazaridis .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lazaridis, M., Colbeck, I. (2010). Environmental Levels. In: Lazaridis, M., Colbeck, I. (eds) Human Exposure to Pollutants via Dermal Absorption and Inhalation. Environmental Pollution, vol 17. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8663-1_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics