Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Detection of Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites and Fungi pp 239–260Cite as

Epidemiology and Diagnosis of Hepatitis B in the Mediterranean Region and Elsewhere

  • Conference paper
  • First Online:

  • 1632 Accesses

Abstract

After cancer, viral infections constitute a great threat to human health throughout the world and among these viral hepatitis constitutes one of the most important public threats in the world. Despite considerable advances in medical technology and attempts to eradicate the diseases, viral hepatitis still remain as major public health problem with their high morbidity and mortality in the Mediterranean, Eastern Europe, Middle East and elsewhere. Uncontrolled migratory flow from developing countries to regions of low endemicity gave rise to changes not only in the prevalence of viral infection but also the genotype, clinical course and modes of transmission. Among several viruses which may affect the liver those which constitute important public health problems are hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. All of these viruses can cause an acute disease with symptoms lasting several weeks however HBV can cause asymptomatic infection which can silently progress to chronic infection in which the patient never gets rid of the virus and many years later develops cirrhosis of the liver or liver cancer. Of the two billion people who have been infected with HBV, more than 350 million have chronic (lifelong) infections. In this chapter, we reviewed the present situation, epidemiology, clinical presentation, prevention, diagnostic techniques and the universal importance of Hepatitis B.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

ALT:

Alanine aminotransferase

anti-HBc:

Antibody to hepatitis B virus core antigen

anti-Hbe:

Antibody to hepatitis B virus e antigen

bps:

Bits per second

DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic acid

EU:

European Union

HCW:

Health care workers

HBV:

Hepatitis B virus

HCC:

Hepatocellular carcinoma

anti-HBs:

Hepatitis B surface antibody

HbeAg:

Hepatitis B virus e antigen

HbsAg:

Hepatitis B virus surface antigen

HIV:

Human immune deficiency virus

RNA:

Ribonucleic acid

USSR:

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

WHO:

World Health Organization

References

  • Alter MJ (2003) Epidemiology of hepatitis B in Europe and worldwide. J Hepatol 39:64–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alter MJ, Margolis HS (1990) The emergence of hepatitis B as a sexually transmitted disease. Med Clin N Am 74:1529–1541

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alter HJ, Seeff LB, Kaplan PM, McAuliffe VJ, Wright EC, Gerin JL et al (1976) Type B hepatitis: the infectivity of blood positive for e antigen and DNA polymerase after accidental needlestick exposure. N Engl J Med 295:909–913

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alter HJ, Purcell RH, Gerin JL, London WT, Kaplan PM, McAuliffe VJ et al (1977) Transmission of hepatitis B to chimpanzees by hepatitis B surface antigen-positive saliva and semen. Infect Immun 16:928–933

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alter MJ, Ahtone J, Maynard JE (1983) Multiple-dose vial associated with transmission of hepatitis B virus in a hemodialysis unit. Ann Intern Med 99:330–333

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amato-Gauci A, Ammon A (2007) ECDC to launch first report on communicable diseases epidemiology in the European Union. Euro Surveill. 12(6):E070607.2

    Google Scholar 

  • Attila L (2006) Nucleic acid testing for human disease by Taylor & Francis group, chapter 2, pp 19–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Bancroft WH, Snitbhan R, Scott RM, Tingpalapong M, Watson WT, Tanticharoenyos P, et al (1977) Transmission of hepatitis B virus to gibbons by exposure to human saliva containing hepatitis B surface antigen. J Infect Dis 135:79–85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barlet V, Cohard M, Thelu MA, Chaix MJ, Baccard C, Zarski JP, Seigneurin JM (Sep 1994) Quantitative detection of hepatitis B virus DNA in serum using chemiluminescence: comparison with radioactive solution hybridization assay. J Virol Methods 49(2):141–151

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benner SA, Steven A, Sismour M (July 2005) Synthetic biology. Nat Rev Gen 6:533–543

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bernard PS, Wittwer CT (Aug 2002) Real-time PCR technology for cancer diagnostics. Clin Chem 48(8):1178–1185 (Review)

    Google Scholar 

  • Brechtbuehl K, Whalley SA, Dusheiko GM, Saunders NA (Apr 2001) A rapid real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction for hepatitis B virus. J Virol Methods 93(1–2):105–113

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brunetto MR, Moriconi F, Bonino F, Lau GK, Farci P, Yurdaydin C, Piratvisuth T, Luo K, Wang Y, Hadziyannis S, Wolf E, McCloud P, Batrla R, Marcellin P (Apr 2009) Hepatitis B virus surface antigen levels: a guide to sustained response to peginterferon alfa-2a in HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 49(4):1141–1150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chan HL, Hui AY, Wong ML, Tse AM, Hung LC, Wong VW, Sung JJ (2004) Genotype C hepatitis B virus infection is associated with an increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Gut 53:1494–1498

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chan HL, Wong VW, Tse AM, Tse CH, Chim AM, Chan HY, Wong GL, Sung JJ (Dec 2007) Serum hepatitis B surface antigen quantitation can reflect hepatitis B virus in the liver and predict treatment response. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 5(12):1462–1468

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang MH (2009) Cancer prevention by vaccination against hepatitis B. Recent Results Cancer Res 181:85–94 (Review)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chevaliez S, Pawlotsky JM (7 May 2007) Hepatitis C virus: virology, diagnosis and management of antiviral therapy. World J Gastroenterol 13(17):2461–2466 (Review)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chevaliez S, Pawlotsky JM (Jan–Mar 2009) Virological techniques for the diagnosis and monitoring of hepatitis B and C. Ann Hepatol 8(1):7–12 (Review)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chu CJ, Keeffe EB, Han SH, Perrillo RP, Min AD, Soldevila-Pico C, Carey W, Brown RS Jr, Luketic VA, Terrault N, Lok AS (2003) Hepatitis B virus genotypes in the United States: results of a nationwide survey. Gastroenterology 125:444

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Da Villa G, Piccinino F, Scolastico C, Fusco M, Piccinino R, Sepe A (1998) Long-term epidemiological survey of hepatitis B virus infection in a hyperendemic area (Afragola, Southern Italy): results of a pilot vaccination project. Res Virol 149:263–270

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dal-Re R, Aguilar L, Coronel P (1991) Current prevalence of hepatitis B, A and C in a healthy Spanish population. A seroepidemiological study. Infection 19:409–413

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Degertekin H, Tuzcu A, Yalcin K (2000) Horizontal transmission of HBV infection among students in Turkey. Public Health 114:411–412

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EASL (2009) EASL clinical practice guidelines: management of chronic hepatitis B. J Hepatol 50:227–242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esteban JI, Sauleda S, Quer J (2008) The changing epidemiology of hepatitis C infection in Europe. J Hepatol 48:148–162

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fattovich G (2003) Natural history and prognosis of hepatitis B. Semin Liver Dis 23:47–68

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fattovich G, Pantalena M, Zagni I, Realdi G, Schalm SW, Christensen E (2002) Effect of hepatitis B and C virus infections on the natural history of compensated cirrhosis: a cohort study of 297 patients. Am J Gastroenterol 97:2886–2895

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fattovich G, Bortolotti F, Donato F (2008) Natural history of chronic hepatitis B: special emphasis on disease progression and prognostic factors. J Hepatol 48:335–352

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fung SK, Lok ASF (2004) Treatment of chronic hepatitis B: who to treat, what to use, and for how long? Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2:839–848

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier J, Bourne EJ, Lutz MW, Crowther LM, Dienstag JL, Brown NA, Condreay LD (Dec 1999) Quantitation of hepatitis B viremia and emergence of YMDD variants in patients with chronic hepatitis B treated with lamivudine. J Infect Dis 180(6):1757–1762

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibb R, Nimmo GR, O’Loughlin P, Lowe P, Drummond D (2007) Detection of HBsAg mutants in a population with a low prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection. J Med Virol 79:351–355

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guidotti LG, Rochford R, Chung J, Shapiro M, Purcell R, Chisari FV (1999) Viral clearance without destruction of infected cells during acute HBV infection. Science 284:825–829

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks DA, Stowe BJ, Hoo BS, Kolberg J, Irvine BD, Neuwald PD, Urdea MS (Nov 1995) Perrillo RP Quantitation of HBV DNA in human serum using a branched DNA (bDNA) signal amplification assay. Am J Clin Pathol 104(5):537–546

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ho SK, Chan TM, Cheng IK, Lai KN (Aug 1999) Comparison of the second-generation digene hybrid capture assay with the branched-DNA assay for measurement of hepatitis B virus DNA in serum. J Clin Microbiol 37(8):2461–2465

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hsieh CC, Tzonou A, Zavitsanos X, Kaklamani E, Lan SJ, Trichopoulos D (1992) Age at first establishment of chronic hepatitis B virus infection and hepatocellular carcinoma risk. A birth order study. Am J Epidemiol 136:1115–1121

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hui AY, Chan HL, Leung NW, Hung LC, Chan FK, Sung JJ (2002) Survival and prognostic indicators in patients with hepatitis B virus-related cirrhosis after onset of hepatic decompensation. J Clin Gastroenterol 34:569–572

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hui CK, Leung N, Yuen ST, Zhang HY, Leung KW, Lu L et al (2007) Natural history and disease progression in Chinese chronic hepatitis B patients in immune-tolerant phase. Hepatology 46:395–401

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hutin YJ, Harpaz R, Drobeniuc J, Melnic A, Ray C, Favorov M et al (1999) Injections given in healthcare settings as a major source of acute hepatitis B in Moldova. Int J Epidemiol 28:782–786

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kane A, Lloyd J, Zaffran M et al (1999) Transmission of hepatitis B, hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency viruses through unsafe injections in the developing world: model- based regional estimates. Bull World Health Organ 77(10):801–807

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kao JH (2007) Role of viral factors in the natural course and therapy of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatol Int 1:415–430

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kao JH, Chen PJ, Lai MY, Chen DS (2000) Hepatitis B genotypes correlate with clinical outcomes in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology 118:554–559

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kent GB, Brondum J, Keenlyside RA, LaFazia LM, Scott HD (1988) A large outbreak of acupuncture- associated hepatitis B. Am J Epidemiol 127:591–598

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kyriakis KP, Foudoulaki LE, Papoulia EI, Sofroniadou KE (2000) Seroprevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) among first-time and sporadic blood donors in Greece: 1991–1996. Transfusion Med 10:175–180

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lavanchy D (2004) Hepatitis B virus epidemiology, disease burden, treatment, and current and emerging prevention and control measures. J Viral Hepatol 11:97–107

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee WM (1997) Hepatitis B virus infection. N Engl J Med 337(24):1733–1745

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liaw JF, Chu CM (2009) Hepatitis B virus infection. Lancet 373:582–592

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Limentani AE, Elliott LM (1979) An outbreak of hepatitis B from tattooing. Lancet 2:86–88

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin HH, Kao JH, Chang TC, Hsu HY, Chen DS (2003) Secular trend of age-specific prevalence of hepatitis B surface and e antigenemia in pregnant women in Taiwan. J Med Virol 69:466–470

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lionis C, Koulentaki M, Biziagos E, Kouroumalis E (1997) Current prevalence of hepatitis A, B and C in a well-defined area in rural Crete, Greece. J Viral Hepatitis 4:55–61

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loeb KR, Jerome KR, Goddard J, Huang M, Cent A, Corey L (Sep 2000) High-throughput quantitative analysis of hepatitis B virus DNA in serum using the TaqMan fluorogenic detection system. Hepatology 32(3):626–629

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lok AS (2002) Chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med 346(22):1682–1683

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lok AS, McMahon BJ (2007) Chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 45:507–539

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lok AS, Heathcote EJ, Hoofnagle JH (2001) Management of hepatitis B: 2000 – summary of a workshop. Gastroenterology 120(7):1828–1853

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez VA, Bourne EJ, Lutz MW, Condreay LD (Jun 2002) Assessment of the COBAS Amplicor HBV Monitor Test for quantitation of serum hepatitis B virus DNA levels. J Clin Microbiol 40(6):1972–1976

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lorinez A (2006) Nucleic acid testing for human disease in nucleic acid techonology. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL co. 616.075 LOR. (ISSN 1-57444-543-X)

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackay IM (2004) Real-Time PCR in the microbiology laboratory. Clin Microbiol Infect 10:190–212

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Magdzik W (2000) Hepatitis B epidemiology in Poland, Central and Eastern Europe and the newly independent states. Vaccine 18:S13–S16

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney FJ (1999) Update on diagnosis, management, and prevention of hepatitis B virus infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 12(2):351–366

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maini MK, Boni C, Lee CK et al (2000) The role of virus-specifi c CD8(+) cells in liver damage and viral control during persistent hepatitis B virus infection. J Exp Med 191:1269–1280

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manesis EK (2006) HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B: from obscurity to prominence. J Hepatol 45:343–346

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marin IJ, Poljak M, Seme K, Meglic-Volkar J, Maticic M, Lesnicar G, Brinovec V (Feb 2001) Comparative evaluation of semiautomated COBAS AMPLICOR hepatitis B virus (HBV) monitor test and manual microwell plate-based AMPLICOR HBV MONITOR test. J Clin Microbiol 39(2):758–761

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marion SA, Pastore MT, Pi DW, Mathias RG (1994) Longterm follow-up of hepatitis B vaccine in infants of carrier mothers. Am J Epidemiol 140:734–746

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinot-Peignoux M, Boyer N, Colombat M, Akremi R, Pham BN, Ollivier S et al (2002) Serum hepatitis B virus DNA levels and liver histology in inactive HBsAg carriers. J Hepatol 36:543–546

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mazokopakis E, Vlachonikolis J, Philalithis A, Lionis C (2000) Seroprevalence of hepatitis A, B and C markers in Greek warship personnel. Eur J Epidemiol 16:1069–1072

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McKnight CA, Des Jarlais DC, Perlis T, Eigo K (2007) Syringe exchange programs—United States, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56:1164–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Mele A, Tancredi F, Romano L, Giuseppone A, Colucci M, Sangiuolo A, Lecce R, Adamo B, Tosti ME, Taliani G, Zanetti AR (2001) Effectiveness of hepatitis B vaccination in babies born to hepatitis B surface antigen-positive mothers in Italy. J Infect Dis 184:905–908

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muhlbacher A, Weber B, Burgisser P, Eiras A, Cabrera J, Louisirirotchanakul S, Tiller FW et al (2008) Multicenter study of a new fully automated HBsAg screening assay with enhanced sensitivity for the detection of HBV mutants. Med Microbiol Immunol 197:55–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murray JM, Wieland SF, Purcell RH, Chisari FV (2005) Dynamics of hepatitis B virus clearance in chimpanzees. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:17780–17785

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ni Y-H, Chang M-H, Huang L-M, Chen HL, Hsu HY, Chiu TY et al (2001) Hepatitis B virus infection in children and adolescents in a hyperendemic area: 15 years after mass hepatitis B vaccination. Ann Intern Med 135:796–800

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ni YH, Chang MH, Wang KJ et al (2004) Clinical relevance of hepatitis B virus genotype in children with chronic infection and hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 127:1733–1738

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ozaras R, Tabak F, Tahan V, Ozturk R, Akin H, Mert A, Senturk H (2008) Correlation of quantitative assay of HBsAg and HBV DNA levels during chronic HBV treatment. Dig Dis Sci 53:2995–2998

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palumbo E, Scotto G, Cibelli D, Faleo G, Saracin A, Angarano G (2008) Immigration and hepatitis B virus: epidemiological, clinical and therapeutic aspects. La Revue de Santé de la Méditerranée orientale 14(4):784–790

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P (2001) Estimating the world cancer burden: Globocan 2000. Int J Cancer 94(2):153–156

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pawlotsky JM.Molecular diagnosis of viral hepatitis. Gastroenterology 2002;122:1554-1568

    Google Scholar 

  • Perz JF, Elm JL Jr, Fiore AE, Huggler JI, Kuhnert WL, Effler PV (2006a) Near elimination of hepatitis B virus infections among Hawaii elementary school children after universal hepatitis B vaccination. Pediatrics 118:1403

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perz JF, Armstrong GL, Farrington LA et al (2006b) The contribution of hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus infection to cirrhosis and primary liver cancer worldwide. J Hepatol 45:529–538

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ronsin C, Pillet A, Bali C, Denoyel GA (Apr 2006) Evaluation of the COBAS Ampli Prep-total nucleic acid isolation-COBAS TaqMan hepatitis B virus (HBV) quantitative test and comparison to the VERSANT HBV DNA 3.0 assay. J Clin Microbiol 44(4):1390–1399

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakugawa H, Kobashigawa K, Nakayoshi T, Yamashiro T, Maeshiro T, Tomimori K, Kinjo F, Saito A, Mukaide M (Aug 2003) Monitoring low level hepatitis B virus by a newly developed sensitive test. Hepatol Res 26(4):281–286

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmunis GA, Zicker F, Cruz JR, Cuchi P (2001) Safety of blood supply for infectious diseases in Latin American countries, 1994–1997. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65(6):924–930

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simonsen L, Kane A, Lloyd J, Zaffran M, Kane M (1999) Unsafe injections in the developing world and transmission of bloodborne pathogens: a review. Bull World Health Organ 77(10):789–800

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stelzl E, Muller Z, Marth E, Kessler HH (Jun 2004) Rapid quantification of hepatitis B virus DNA by automated sample preparation and real-time PCR. J Clin Microbiol 42(6):2445–2449

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Summers J, Mason WS (1982) Replication of the genome of a hepatitis B-like virus by reverse transcription of an RNA intermediate. Cell 29:403–415

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Toy M, Önder FM, Wormann T, Richardus JH, Schalm S, İdilman H, Değertekin H, Yurdaydın C (2009) Pevalance of hepatitis B in turkey: meta-analysis -abstract. 7th National Meeting of Hepatology, Izmir,Turkey, 10–14 June 2009 (abstract book)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ture Ozdemir F, Duman D, Ertem D, Avsar E, Ozdogan O, Eren F, Kalaycı C, Aslan N, Bozdayı AM, Tozun N (Dec 2005) Determination of hepatitis B genotypes in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection in Turkey. Turk J Gastroenterol 16(4):183–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber B, Van der Taelem-Brule N, Berger A, Simon F, Geudin M, Ritter J (2006) Evaluation of a new automated assay for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) detection Vidas HBsAg ultra. J Virol Methods 135:109–117

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeley SM, Boxall EH, Tarlow MJ, Gatrad AR, Anderson J, Bissenden J, Chin KC, Mayne A (1990) Hepatitis B vaccine in the prevention of perinatally transmitted hepatitis B virus infection: final report on a west midlands pilot study. J MedVirol 30:113–116

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wong ML, Medrano JF (July 2005) Real-time PCR for mRNA quantitation. Biotechniques 39(1):75–85 (Review)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong VCW, Ip HMH, Reesink HW, Kuhns MC (1984) Prevention of the HBsAg-carrier state in newborn infants of mothers who are chronic carriers of HBsAg and HBeAg by administration of hepatitis vaccine and hepatitis-B immunoglobulin. Lancet 8383:921–926

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2000) Hepatitis B. World Health Organization Fact Sheet 204 (Revised October 2000). WHO Web site. 2000. http://who.int/inf-fs/en/fact204.html

  • Worman HJ (Aug 1997) Molecular biological methods in diagnosis and treatment of liver diseases. Clin Chem 43(8 Pt 2):1476–1486

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu ZY, Duan SC, Margolis HS (1995) Long-term efficacy of active postexposure immunization of infants for prevention of hepatitis B virus infection. United States-people’s republic of China study group on hepatitis B. J Infect Dis 171:54–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yao JD, Beld MG, Oon LL, Sherlock CH, Germer J, Menting S, Se Thoe SY, Merrick L, Ziermann R, Surtihadi J, Hnatyszyn HJ (Feb 2004) Multicenter evaluation of the VERSANT hepatitis B virus DNA 3.0 assay. J Clin Microbiol 42(2):800–806

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yuen MF, Sablon E, Tanaka Y, Kato T, Mizokami M, Doutreloigne J, Yuan HJ, Wong DK, Sum SM, Lai CL (2004) Epidemiological study of hepatitis B virus genotypes, core promoter and precore mutations of chronic hepatitis B infection in Hong Kong. J Hepatol 41:119–125

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Gastroenterology, School of Medicine, Acıbadem University, Gulsuyu Mah.Fevzi Cakmak Cadd.Divan Sok.No:1 Maltepe, Istanbul, Turkey

    Nurdan Tözün

  2. Gastroenterology Department, Acıbadem Kozyatagi Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey

    Özdal Ersoy

  3. Molecular Biology Department, Institute of Gastroenterology, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey

    Fatih Eren

  4. Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

    Veysel Tahan

Authors
  1. Nurdan Tözün
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Özdal Ersoy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Fatih Eren
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Veysel Tahan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nurdan Tözün .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Policlinico Monteluce, Dipto. Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Università di Perugia, Perugia, 06122, Italy

    Mariapia Viola Magni

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this paper

Cite this paper

Tözün, N., Ersoy, Ö., Eren, F., Tahan, V. (2010). Epidemiology and Diagnosis of Hepatitis B in the Mediterranean Region and Elsewhere. In: Viola Magni, M. (eds) Detection of Bacteria, Viruses, Parasites and Fungi. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series A: Chemistry and Biology. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8544-3_10

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation