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Alkane Functionalization via Electrophilic Activation

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Alkane C-H Activation by Single-Site Metal Catalysis

Part of the book series: Catalysis by Metal Complexes ((CMCO,volume 38))

Abstract

Electrophilic activation, which may be defined as the substitution of a transition metal center for a proton to generate a new metal–carbon bond, is the basis of a number of promising approaches to selective catalytic functionalization of alkanes. The field was introduced by the groundbreaking chemistry exhibited by aqueous chloroplatinum complexes, reported by Shilov in the early 1970s. Since then the field has expanded greatly, and electrophilic alkane activation has been demonstrated using a wide variety of species. These include ligand-supported platinum complexes; complexes of additional late transition metals, most commonly palladium but also iridium, gold and others; and even post-transition metals such as mercury. That body of work is surveyed here, with particular emphasis on mechanistic understanding, examples of actual functionalization at sp 3-hybridized C–H bonds in alkanes and related compounds, and assessment of the further development that will be needed for practical applications.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Periana and Goddard have recently offered an alternate perspective [1]. According to their theoretical studies, reactions may be classified as electrophilic, ambiphilic or nucleophilic based on the calculated transfer of charge from alkane to metal complex, or the reverse, in the transition state for C–H activation. Many of the systems classified as ambiphilic or nucleophilic involve simultaneous interaction of the C–H bond with both the metal center and another ligand, but even if only the metal center is involved, the net transfer can still be from metal to C–H bond, if π back-donation from a filled metal orbital to the C–H σ* orbital is more important than donation from the C–H σ orbital to a vacant metal orbital. It is not clear how general or useful this approach might be (a possible illustration is discussed in Sect. 4.7); for one thing, a stated goal is to develop methods for combining C–H activations with compatible functionalization reactions, but (as we will see) in many cases the species that effects functionalization differs substantially from that responsible for the activation, so the nature of the activation (even assuming the methodology can accurately describe it) may well be entirely disconnected from potential functionalization chemistry. In any case, we will not make any use of these distinctions here.

  2. 2.

    This subject has been reviewed before, far too often to cite all of them. Some particularly relevant ones; an earlier, but considerably shorter, review of electrophilic oxidations [5]; a much more thorough coverage of Pt-mediated C–H activation and functionalization [6]; a more recent review of oxidative functionalization of alkanes in protic media [7]; a general review of transition metal catalyzed oxidative functionalization of C–H bonds [8].

  3. 3.

    For benzene activation the C–H activation step may be rate-determining, in cases where the steric constraints are not too severe; presumably the much more favorable interaction arene-metal π complex, compared to the σ alkane complex, lowers the barrier to complexation below that of C–H cleavage. This situation does not appear to arise in alkane activation by Pt(II); it is usually straightforward to decide which step is rate-determining by examining isotope exchange.

  4. 4.

    See papers cited in references [5] and [6].

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Acknowledgments

I am grateful to the many students and posdocs, and specially to my Caltech colleague John Bercaw, with whom I have worked on this topic; their names are listed in the references to our work in this chapter. My collaboration and discussion with them have contributed greatly to any understanding and insight I have managed to convey.

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  1. Beckman Institute, California Institute of Technology, 139-74, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA

    Jay A. Labinger

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  1. Depto. Química y Ciencia de Materiales, Universidad de Huelva, Avda. Fuerzas Armadas s/n, Huelva, 21071, Spain

    Pedro J. Pérez

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Labinger, J.A. (2012). Alkane Functionalization via Electrophilic Activation. In: Pérez, P. (eds) Alkane C-H Activation by Single-Site Metal Catalysis. Catalysis by Metal Complexes, vol 38. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3698-8_2

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