Abstract
In this final chapter we shall turn to a quite different approach within cultural psychology. We shall not inquire about the cultural part of psychic functioning of a group or an individual, but indulge in something that is more or less the opposite. We will address the psychic part in the development and the makeup of culture, or rather, of a selected subculture. We will turn again to the gereformeerden from the Netherlands, and try to understand how factors that might be conceptualized and explored by means of psychological theories and viewpoints have had an impact in their history. That history, in combination with that of several other groups in the Netherlands, has led to a social order, to a structure of society, that has been quite remarkable and for a long time has even been considered to be unique to the Netherlands. Although recent research has shown that the latter can no longer be maintained, so-called “pillarization” has been very characteristic of the Netherlands for the larger part of the twentieth century and continues to have effects to this day. Evidently, we first need to introduce the phenomenon.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Irwin et al. (1987) speak of “gaps between the various population groups”, and focus their attention on behavior at the polls as an example of the influence and importance of pillarization. In 1958 this was still a “virtually impeccable product of the pillarization mentality. (…) One could use this method to declare the party preference of 72% of the voting population” (Andeweg 1981, p. 86).
- 3.
Laarse provides us with a more detached description than Rogier, but he refers just as much to organizational dimensions as to aspects of mentality. He describes pillarization as “the phenomenon in which people increasingly carry out their social activities within complexes of organizations on the basis of religious-ideological loyalties (this as distinct from kinship, rank, or social class), which encompass several areas of community life and which mutually compete for a share of governmental power and financial resources. It therefore involves not only the emergence of organizational and political ties, but equally the formation of social-cultural ideas concerning the identity of the pillars” (1989, p. 29).
- 4.
In fact, everything that is featured in the often more popular literature as a pejorative description of the social environment of the pillars should be added to dimension 1: narrow-mindedness, submissiveness, aggression towards other groups, self-importance, authoritarianism, etc. – things that continue to create bitter memories of the pillarized past for many people today. Certainly these negative experiences do not apply to everyone, always and in every domain, yet the fact that they existed is undeniable. Indeed, it is thought that even the terms “pillar” and “pillarization” are palliative and legitimizing designations for what many (especially during the 1930s, cf. Ellemers 1984, p. 141) experienced as an effort to keep the people of the Netherlands divided. They often spoke disapprovingly of “parochialism.”
- 5.
Hellemans (1985) confines “pillar” and “pillarization” to only those situations in which both dimensions are present. This reluctance to make broad use of the terms makes it possible for him to distinguish pillarization from other phenomena that are only partially related. Thus the existence of a subculture alone (such as that of the blacks in the United States) cannot be called a pillar if it lacks an integrated network of organizations. On the other hand, a neo-corporative conglomerate, a network distinct from a random network, cannot be called a pillar if it lacks the support of a distinctive social climate. Thus pillarization is indeed a way of segregating or segmenting a pluralistic society but conversely not every form of segregation or segmentation is a form of pillarization.
- 6.
In his introduction to historical psychology, Peeters (1994) correctly points out that within the ranks of psychology there has traditionally been much resistance to accepting the impact of “mentality” or – to use Duijker’s more formal phrasing (1981) – cognitive behavioral determinants (1994, p. 30).
- 7.
- 8.
Because that, according to the opinion of many participants afterwards, is exactly what happened. Just compare the common terms that were used at the time and on behalf of the “doorbraak” (the breakthrough of the pillarized system) that took place after the Second World War.
- 9.
“AR” stands for the Annual Report of the Association of Christian Care for the Mentally Ill.
- 10.
Read: Calvinist. During this period, the Calvinists were strongly inclined to claim the designation “Christian” exclusively for themselves. Although the Christian identity was not explicitly denied to others, the conviction was repeatedly expressed that the Calvinist religion was the most pure, the most in conformity with the Holy Scriptures, and that Calvinism was “Christianity par excellence.” So Calvinists did not hesitate to call their activities and organizations “Christian” (instead of, and more correctly, “Calvinist”). Roman Catholics, by the way, often participated in this usage and generally referred to Calvinists as the “Christians.”
- 11.
That is, in non-Calvinist, especially “neutral” (i.e. non-confessional), institutions.
- 12.
The text was issued once again during the high point of pillarization in the Gedenkboek uitgegeven bij het vijftig jarig bestaan der Vereeniging (Commemorative Book Issued on the Occasion of the Association’s Fiftieth Anniversary) (pp. 9–26), privately published in 1935.
- 13.
Mainly a linguistic style borrowed from the Authorized Dutch translation of the Bible and from eighteenth century spiritual authors.
- 14.
In translation something like: geuzen-head. Geuzen: reference to a kind of guerrilla fighter from the period 1568–1648, when the former Netherlands was wresting itself from Spanish (Roman Catholic) domination.
- 15.
In a later period, critics of pillarization would often poke fun at something that does seem to sum up the passion of pillarized existence: a Roman Catholic Goat Breeders’ Association.
- 16.
Also see Sulloway (1979) and Brinkgreve (1984). The main point of focus here is the “myth of the great resistance” (Brinkgreve 1984, p. 71): portraying the outside world as hostile. Yet we also encounter another great myth: that of the “lonely and original hero.” The Association very much prided itself in “its” family health care program (placing patients within guest families instead of in an institution) and “its” pavilion system (housing patients in units of a limited size that were initially under the direction of a married couple). It gladly presented these initiatives as their own and particular practice, and some even went so far as to claim that they were based on the Bible and theology. The fact was, however, that such “treatment” existed before the establishment of the Association and had even been suggested to the Association by others. But indeed, once they had taken over these methods and furnished them with a Calvinist religious setting and legitimation, the Association, with its great energy, generally did work harder on them than others had done before.
- 17.
A-Calvinists are the ecclesiastical communities that trace their origins back to the so-called “Afscheiding” (Separation) of 1834 (and shortly thereafter). The genealogy of the B-Calvinists goes back to 1886 (the Doleantie (Secession), under the leadership of A. Kuyper). Most of the A-Calvinists joined forces in 1869 to become the Christelijk Gereformeerde kerk (the Christian Reformed Church). The communities descending from the Doleantie formed the Nederduitsch Gereformeerde kerken (the Lower German Reformed churches). Both of these merged in 1892, not without difficulty, to form what is today known as the Gereformeerde (strict Reformed, or Calvinist) churches in the Netherlands. Not without difficulty, because the groups were quite divided in their experience of faith and in their relation to the “outside world.” The differences in mentality still exist to a certain extent. In many places today, people are able to say whether the local Calvinist church was originally an A or a B congregation.
- 18.
Its minister, H. de Cock, formulated a manifesto for the occasion bearing the title Akte van Afscheiding of Wederkeering (Act of Separation, or a Return to our Roots).
- 19.
Consider, for example, the fact that the “General Regulations for the Board of the Reformed Church” was drawn up by a Royal Decree dated 7 January 1816, and that members of the various executive organs were appointed by the King himself (Vree 1984, p. 38).
- 20.
For an elaboration of these and other examples, see Belzen 1989a.
- 21.
In my Psychopathologie en religie (1989a), I draw a comparison with the York Retreat, a home for psychiatric patients founded by English Quakers in 1796. Amidst all the similarities between the York Retreat and the asylums of the Association, one of the most important differences was that the Quakers did not pretend to be practicing (or want to practice) a fundamentally new psychiatry based on religion. The result of both initiatives was approximately the same, however: a psychiatry that followed the general trends, but within the confines of a specific religious subculture. For the York Retreat see, among others: Scull (1982) and Digby (1985).
- 22.
Compare Hendriks (1971), who responded to the fact that at that time there was mention of “specific Christian constitutional laws, science, art, marriage, family, and much more” by wondering what this meant in concrete terms. He concluded that “the term ‘Christian culture’ does not imply a cultural pattern that is radically different from the Western cultural pattern as such, but is a specific variant of that Western cultural pattern in which certain norms and values are rejected and replaced by others” (p. 179). I am inclined to alter this conclusion somewhat and to regard Calvinist language, customs, and climate, even more than other norms and values, as the attributes of the “specific Christian” (Calvinist) culture.
- 23.
In his well-known monograph Das unbekannte Holland (1984), Zahn contradicts the very widespread image (and self-image) of the Dutch and states that tolerance is not a national virtue, but a behavioral norm born of practical realism and necessity. In his opinion, pillarization was not the result of forbearance. Rather, in the segregation of the various population groups, pillarization embodied just the opposite: merely putting up with outsiders. The sociologist Van Doorn also wrote that people within the pillars were free “to denounce everyone else to their hearts’ content – and no one need concern himself with anyone on the outside” (Doorn 1985, p. 31).
- 24.
“I gave this phenomenon the name of ‘narcissism of minor differences,’ a name which does not do much to explain it. We can now see that it is a convenient and relatively harmless satisfaction of the inclination to aggression, by means of which cohesion between the members of the community is made easier” (Freud 1930/1961, p. 114).
- 25.
Please note: I have intentionally said “something of the mentality” because (of course) this hypothesis only provides us with partial insight. In this essay we have formed a picture of some aspects of the history and mentality of the Calvinists. These background facts and psychological hypotheses presented are by no means expected to simply hold true for other pillarized population groups in the Netherlands who were nevertheless characterized to the same degree by animosity and “narcissism of minor differences.” And conversely, if the reasoning presented here could not be applied to the non-Calvinist population groups who exhibited the same kind of characteristics, this does not constitute an argument against the validity of the reasoning in the case of the Calvinists. Indeed, the same behavior can have a very different psychological structure with different persons (or groups).
- 26.
Thurlings (1971) described an analogous development within the “dominant upper current” of Dutch Catholics: defensiveness (1860–1900), regained self-confidence (1900–1925), extroverted triumphalism (1925–1940), and reserved confidence (1945–1960). For a biographical overview of Catholic life in the Netherlands in the 19th and 20th centuries, see also Winkeler (1996a, b).
- 27.
Among other things, in order to do justice to this observation, Grotstein introduced a further differentiation in the conceptualizing of prenarcissistic self-objects: “There is a considerable difference phenomenologically between background objects and interpersonal objects which are impressed into service as self-objects. The concept of self-object, I strongly maintain, transcends far more than just simply the mother or father. It includes tradition, heredity, the mother country, the neighborhood, etc.” (Grotstein 1983, p. 85). Evidently, religion and the church can also be added here.
- 28.
- 29.
Many years later, Calvinist authors would start to point out that faith and theology had been too closely identified with certain lifestyles, and that failing to comply with certain practices (e.g., not sending children to Calvinist schools or not voting for the Calvinist ARP party) had been too readily connected with “abandoning the faith.” In the period we are discussing here, the emergence and peaking of pillarization, this differentiation was not the general pattern, however. Seen from another angle, it cannot be expected that present-day churchgoers would respond to the sort of appeal that was made in those days by constructing a pillar, since religion for them is more differentiated from other areas of life. On the other hand, it is striking that the very groups that reject any division between religion and state/education/etc., have today become receptive to re-pillarization tendencies.
References
Aelst, P. van & Walgrave, S. (1998). Voorbij de verzuiling? [Beyond pillarization?] Tijdschrift voor Sociologie, 19, 55–87.
Andeweg, R. B. (1981). De burger in de Nederlandse politiek [The citizen in Dutch politics]. In R. B. Andeweg, A. Hoogerwerf & J. J. A. Thomassen (Eds.), Politiek in Nederland [Politics in the Netherlands] (pp. 79–102). Alphen aan de Rijn: Samson.
Bax, E. H. (1988). Modernization and cleavage in Dutch society: A study of long term economic and social change. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Groningen, the Netherlands.)
Becker, U. (Ed.) (1993). Nederlandse politiek in historisch en vergelijkend perspectief [Dutch politics in historical and comparative perspective]. Amsterdam: Spinhuis.
Beit-Hallahmi, B. (1989). Prolegomena to the psychological study of religion. London/ Toronto: Associated University Press.
Belzen, J. A. (1989a). Psychopathologie en religie: Ideeën, behandeling en verzorging in de gereformeerde psychiatrie, 1880–1940 [Psychopathology and religion: Ideas, treatment and care in Calvinist psychiatry, 1880–1940]. Kampen: Kok.
Belzen, J. A. (1989c). Theological influences and aspirations in psychology. Storia della Psicologia, 1, 26–38.
Belzen, J.A. (1998b). “Searching for the soul”: Religious factors in Leendert Bouman’s development of a “psychological psychiatry.” History of Psychiatry, 9, 303–333.
Berger, P. (1967). The sacred canopy. New York: Doubleday.
Blom, J. C. H. (1981). Verzuiling in Nederland, in het bijzonder op lokaal niveau, 1850–1925 [Pillarization in the Netherlands, with a focus on the local level, 1850–1925]. Amsterdam: Historisch Seminarium van de Universiteit van Amsterdam.
Blom, J. C. H. (2006). The Netherlands since 1830. In J. C. H. Blom & E. Lamberts (Eds.), History of the Low Countries (New Edition) (pp. 393–470). New York/Oxford: Berghahn Books.
Blom, J. C. H. & Talsma, J. (2000). De verzuiling voorbij: Godsdienst, stand en natie in de lange negentiende eeuw [Beyond pillarization: religion, class and nation in the long 19th century]. Amsterdam: Spinhuis.
Booy, T. (1956). Een stille omwenteling: Het gereformeerde leven in onze jeugd [A silent revolution: The Calvinist life in our youth]. Amsterdam: Ten Have.
Bornewasser, J. A. (1988). De katholieke zuil in wording als object van columnologie [The genesis of the Catholic pillar as object of columnology]. Archief voor de Geschiedenis van de Katholieke kerk in Nederland [Archives for the History of the Catholic Church in the Netherlands], 168–212.
Bosscher, D. F. J. (1987). Het protestantisme [Protestantism]. In P. Luykx & N. Bootsma (Eds.), De laatste tijd: Geschiedschrijving over Nederland in de 20e eeuw [Recent times: Historiography of the Netherlands in the 20th century]. Utrecht: Spectrum.
Brinkgreve, C. (1984). Psychoanalyse in Nederland [Psychoanalysis in the Netherlands]. Amsterdam: Arbeiderspers.
Bruin, A. A. de (1985). Het ontstaan van de schoolstrijd: Onderzoek naar de wortels van de schoolstrijd in de Noordelijke Nederlanden gedurende de eerste helft van de 19e eeuw; een cultuurhistorische studie [The emergence of the school funding controversy: Research on the roots of the school funding controversy in the northern Netherlands during the first half of the 19th century; a cultural-historical study]. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Leiden, The Netherlands).
Chorus, A. (1943). Psychologische verschillen tussen protestanten en katholieken in Nederland [Psychological differences between Protestants and Catholics in the Netherlands]. Het Gemenebest [The Commonwealth], 34–57, 65–89.
Chorus, A. (1964). De Nederlander innerlijk en uiterlijk: Een karakteristiek [The Dutchman, inside and out: A portrait]. Leiden: Sijthoff.
DeBruijn, J. (1998). De betekenis van documentatiecentra voor het kerkelijk erfgoed [The significance of documentation centers for the church’s legacy]. In J. de Bruijn, P. N. Holtrop & B. Woelderink (Eds.), “Een lastige erfenis”: Kerkelijke archieven van de twintigste eeuw [“A troublesome legacy”: Church archives of the twentieth century] (pp. 51–70). Zoetermeer: Meinema.
Dekker, P. & Ester, P. (1996). Depillarization, deconfessionalization and de-ideologization: Empirical trends in Dutch society, 1958–1992. Review of Religious Research, 37(4), 325–341.
Dierickx, G. (1986). De sociologen en de verzuiling: Over het nut van deterministische en strategische paradigmata [Sociologists and pillarization: On the usefulness of deterministic and strategic paradigms]. Tijdschrift voor Sociologie [Journal for Sociology], 7, 509–549.
Digby, A. (1985). Madness, morality and medicine: A study of the York Retreat, 1796–1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Doorn, J. A. A. van (1956). Verzuiling: Een eigentijds systeem van sociale controle [Pillarization: A contemporary system of social control]. Sociologische Gids [Sociological Guide], 5, 41–49.
Doorn, J. A. A. van (1985). Tolerantie als tactiek [Tolerance as tactic]. Intermediair [Intermediary], 21 (51), 31.
Duffhues, T. (1980). Het georganiseerd katholicisme in Nederland. [Organized Catholicism in the Netherlands] Jaarboek van het Katholiek Documentatie Centrum [Yearbook of the Catholic Documentation Center], 10, 135–159.
Duffhues, T. (1987). Staat “de wankele zuil” nog overeind? Een verkenning van de recente literatuur over verzuiling en ontzuiling [Is “the shaky pillar” still standing? An exploration of the recent literature on pillarization and depillarization]. Jaarboek van het Katholiek Documentatie Centrum [Yearbook of the Catholic Documentation Center], 17, 134–162.
Duffhues, T. & Vugt, J. van (1980). Literatuur over verzuiling en ontzuiling [Literature on pillarization and depillarization]. Jaarboek van het Katholiek Documentatie Centrum [Yearbook of the Catholic Documentation Center], 10, 161–170.
Duijker, H. C. J. (1981). Mentaliteit: Een gedragsdeterminant? [Mentality: A determinant of behaviour?] Symposium, 3, 129–138.
Elias, N. & Scotson, J. L. (1965). The established and the outsiders: A sociological inquiry into community problems. London: Cass.
Ellemers, J. E. (1984). Pillarization as a process of modernization. Acta Politica, 19, 129–144.
Ellemers, J. E. (1996). Pillarization as a process of modernization. Acta Politica, 31, 524–538.
Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconsciousness. New York: Basic Books.
Elms, A. C. (1994). Uncovering lives: The uneasy alliance of biography and psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.
Erikson, E. H. (1956). The problem of ego identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4, 56–118.
Freud, S. (1918/1963). The taboo of virginity. In The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 16 (transl. & ed. J. Strachey; pp. 7–122). London: Hogarth.
Freud, S. (1921/1955). Group psychology and the analysis of the ego. In The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 18 (transl. & ed. J. Strachey; pp. 69–143). London: Hogarth.
Freud, S. (1930/1961). Civilization and its discontents. In The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 21 (transl. & ed. J. Strachey; pp. 64–145). London: Hogarth.
Goffman, E. (1961). Asylums: Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates. Chicago: Aldine.
Gooyer, A. C. de (1964). Het beeld der vad’ren: Een documentaire over het leven van het protestants-christelijk volksdeel in de twintiger en dertiger jaren [The image of the fathers: A documentary on the life of the Protestant community during the twenties and thirties]. Baarn: Bosch & Keuning.
Goudsblom, J. (1979). De Nederlandse samenleving in ontwikkelingsperspectief. [Dutch society from developmental perspective] Symposium, 1, 8–27.
Groot, F. (1992). Roomsen, rechtzinnigen en nieuwlichters: Verzuiling in een Hollandse plattelandsgemeente, Naaldwijk 1850–1930 [Catholics, Reformed and modernists: Pillarization in the Dutch country town of Naaldwijk, 1850–1930]. Hilversum: Verloren.
Grotstein, J. (1983). Some perspectives in self psychology. In A. Goldberg (Ed.), The future of psychoanalysis (pp. 165–201). New York: International Universities Press.
Hellemans, S. (1985). Elementen van een algemene theorie van verzuiling [Elements of a general theory of pillarization]. Tijdschrift voor Sociologie [Journal for Sociology], 6, 235–258.
Hendriks, J. (1971). De emancipatie der gereformeerden: Sociologische bijdrage tot de verklaring van enige kenmerken van het huidige gereformeerde volksdeel [The emancipation of the Calvinists: Sociological contribution to the explanation of several features of today’s Calvinist population]. Alphen aan de Rijn: Samson.
Holtrop, P. N. (1984). De Afscheiding: Breekpunt en kristallisatiepunt [The Schism: Breaking point and crystallization point]. In W. Bakker et al. (Eds.), De Afscheiding van 1834 en haar geschiedenis [The Schism of 1834 and its history] (pp. 62–99). Kampen: Kok.
Huyse, L. (1984). Pillarization reconsidered. Acta Politica, 19, 145–158.
Irwin, G. A., Eijk, C. van der, Hosteyn, J. M. van & Niemöller, B. (1987). Verzuiling, issues, kandidaten en ideologie in de verkiezingen van 1986 [Pillarization, issues, candidates and ideologies in the elections of 1986]. Acta Politica, 22, 129–179.
Kaam, B. van. (1964). Parade der mannenbroeders [Parade of the brothers]. Wageningen: Zomer & Keuning.
Kohut, H. (1971). The analysis of the self: A systematic approach to the psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic personality disorders. New York: International Universities Press.
Kohut, H. (1977). The restoration of the self. New York: International Universities Press.
Kohut, H. (1985). Self psychology and the humanities. New York: Norton.
Koppenjan, J. (1986). Verzuiling en interconfessionaliteit in Nederlands-Limburg 1900–1920 [Pillarization and interconfessionality in Dutch Limburg 1900–1920]. Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis [Journal for Social History], 12, 109–134.
Koppenjan, J. (1987). De Limburgse School: Interconfessionalisme en stadsorganisatie [The Limburg School: Interconfessionalism and urban organisation]. Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis [Journal for Social History], 13, 87–93.
Kruijt, J. P. (1943). Mentaliteitsverschillen in ons land in verband met godsdienstige verschillen [Differences in mentality in our country and their relationship to religious differences]. Mensch en Maatschappij [Man and Society], 19, 1–28; 65–83.
Kruijt, J. P. (1957). Levensbeschouwing en groepssolidariteit in Nederland [Philosophy of life and group solidarity in the Netherlands]. Sociologisch Jaarboek [Sociological Yearbook], 2, 29–65.
Kruijt, J. P. & Goddijn, W. (1961). Verzuiling en ontzuiling als sociologisch proces [Pillarization and depillarization as a sociological process]. In A. N. J. den Hollander et al. (Eds.), Drift en koers: Een halve eeuw sociale verandering in Nederland [Current and course: A half century of social change in the Netherlands] (pp. 227–263). Assen: Van Gorcum.
Kruijt, J. P. et al. (1959). Verzuiling [Pillarization]. Zaandijk: Heijnis.
Laarse, R. van der (1989). Bevoogding en bevinding: Heren en kerkvolk in een Hollandse provinciestad, Woerden 1780–1930 [Paternalism and the experience of God: Gentlemen and common churchgoers in the Dutch provincial town of Woerden, 1780–1930]. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.)
Lee, R. R. & Martin, W. (1991). Psychotherapy after Kohut: A textbook of self psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press.
Leenders, J. M. M. (1992). Benauwde verdraagzaamheid, hachelijk fatsoen: Families, standen en kerken te Hoorn in het midden van de negentiende eeuw [Anxious tolerance, precarious respectability: Families, social position and churches in Hoorn in the mid-nineteenth century]. The Hague: Stichting Hollandse Historische Reeks.
Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving social conflicts. New York: Harper.
Lijphart, A. (1975). The politics of accommodation: Pluralism and democracy in the Netherlands. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Lijphart, A. (1976). Verzuiling [Pillarization]. In A. Hoogerwerf (Ed.), Verkenningen in de politiek, Deel 2 [Exploring politics, Part 2]. Alphen aan den Rijn: Samson.
Lijphart, A. (1992). Verzuiling en pacificatie als empirische en normatieve modellen in vergelijkend perspectief [Pillarization and pacification as empirical and normative models in comparative perspective]. Acta Politica, 27, 323–332.
Lindeboom, L. (1887). De beteekenis van het christelijk geloof voor de geneeskundige wetenschap, in het bijzonder voor de psychiatrie [The significance of Christian faith for the healing sciences, especially psychiatry]. Heusden: Gezelle Meerburg.
Maassen, J. (1987). Interconfessionalisme [Interconfessionalism]. Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis [Journal for Social History], 13, 74–86.
Miert, J. van (1994). Wars van clubgeest en partijzucht: Liberalen, natie en verzuiling, Tiel en Winschoten 1850–1920 [Aversion to the club mentality and party-mindedness: Liberals, nation and pillarization in Tiel and Winschoten, 1850–1920]. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Mönnich, C. W. (1962). De kerken der Hervorming sinds 1813 [The churches of the Reformation since 1813]. In A. G. Weiler et al. (Eds.), Geschiedenis van de Kerk in Nederland [History of the church in the Netherlands]. Utrecht/Antwerpen: Spectrum.
Os, M. van, & Wieringa, W. J. (Eds.) (1980). Wetenschap en rekenschap, 1880–1980: Een eeuw wetenschapsbeoefening aan de Vrije Universiteit [Science and accountability, 1880–1980: A century of scientific inquiry at the Free University]. Kampen: Kok.
Peeters, H.F.M. (1994). Hoe veranderlijk is de mens? Een inleiding in de historische psychologie [How changeable is the human being? An introduction to historical psychology]. Nijmegen: SUN.
Post, H. (1989). Pillarization: An analysis of Dutch and Belgian society. Aldershot [etc.]: Avebury.
Reinalda, B. (1992). The weak implantation of the early Catholic and Socialist workers’ movement in Nijmegen. Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis [Journal for Social History], 18, 404–424.
Righart, J. A. (1986). De katholieke zuil in Europa: Het ontstaan van verzuiling onder katholieken in Oostenrijk, Zwitserland, België en Nederland [The Catholic pillar in Europe: The emergence of pillarization among Catholics in Austria, Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands]. Meppel: Boom.
Rogier, L. J. (1956). Katholieke herbeleving: Geschiedenis van katholiek Nederland, 1853–1953 [Reliving the Catholic experience: History of the Catholic Netherlands, 1853–1953]. The Hague: Pax.
Rooy, P. de (2005). Republiek van rivaliteiten: Nederland sinds 1813 [Republic of rivalries: The Netherlands since 1813]. Amsterdam: Mets en Schilt.
Schlauch, C. (1993). The intersecting-overlapping self: Contemporary psychoanalysis reconsiders religion again. Pastoral Psychology, 42, 21–43.
Scull, A. T. (1982). Museums of madness: The social organization of insanity in nineteenth-century England. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Sherif, M. & Cantril, H. (1947). The psychology of ego-involvements, social attitudes & identifications. New York: Wiley.
Strozier, C. B. & Offer, D. (1985). New directions: Heinz Kohut. In C. B. Strozier & D. Offer (Eds.), The leader: Psychohistorical essays (pp. 73–78). New York/London: Plenum Press.
Sturm, J. C. (1988). Een goede gereformeerde opvoeding: Over neo-calvinistische moraalpedagogiek (1880–1950) met speciale aandacht voor de nieuw-gereformeerde jeugdorganisaties [A good Calvinist upbringing: On neo-Calvinistic moral pedagogy (1880–1950) with special focus on the neo-Calvinist youth organizations]. Kampen: Kok.
Stuurman, S. (1983). Verzuiling, kapitalisme en patriarchaat: Aspecten van de ontwikkeling van de moderne staat in Nederland [Pillarization, capitalism and patriarchy: Aspects of the development of the modern state in the Netherlands]. Nijmegen: SUN.
Sulloway, F. J. (1979). Freud, biologist of the mind: Beyond the psychoanalytic legend. London: Basic Books.
Thurlings, J. M. G. (1971). De wankele zuil: Nederlandse katholieken tussen assimilatie en pluralisme [The shaky pillar: Dutch Catholics between assimilation and pluralism]. Deventer: Van Loghum Slaterus.
Velde, H. te & Verhage, H. (Eds.) (1996). De eenheid & de delen: Zuilvorming, onderwijs en natievorming in Nederland, 1850–1900. [Unity and parts: Pillarization, education and nation in the Netherlands, 1850–1900] Amsterdam: Spinhuis.
Verrips-Rouken, K. (1987). Lokale elites en beschavingsoffensieven, Langbroek 1870–1920 [Local elites and civilizing offensives, Langbroek 1870–1920]. Sociologisch Jaarboek [Sociological Yearbook], 165–181.
Verwey-Jonker, H. (1957). De psychologie van de verzuiling [The psychology of pillarization]. Socialisme en Democratie [Socialism and Democracy], 14, 30–39.
Verwey-Jonker, H. (1962). De emancipatiebewegingen [The emancipation movements]. In A. N. J. den Hollander et al. (Eds.), Drift en koers: Een halve eeuw sociale verandering in Nederland [Current and course: A half century of social change in the Netherlands]. Assen: Van Gorcum.
Vree, J. (1984). De Nederlandse Hervormde kerk in de jaren voor de Afscheiding [The Netherlands Reformed Church in the years before the Schism]. In W. Bakker et al. (Eds.), De Afscheiding van 1834 en haar geschiedenis [The Schism of 1834 and its history] (pp. 30–61). Kampen: Kok.
Wielenga, D. K. (1885–1886). Rede gehouden bij de opening van Veldwijk op 28 januari 1886 [Speech given at the opening of Veldwijk on 28 January 1886]. Jaarverslag van de Vereeniging tot Christelijke Verzorging van Geestes- en Zenuwzieken [Annual Report of the Association of Christian Care for the Mentally Ill], 2, 37–53.
Winkeler, L. (1996a). Geschiedschrijving sedert 1945 over het katholiek leven in Nederland in de 19e en 20e eeuw [Historiography since 1945 on Catholic life in the Netherlands in the 19th and 20th centuries] (part I). Trajecta, 5, 111–133.
Winkeler, L. (1996b). Geschiedschrijving sedert 1945 over het katholiek leven in Nederland in de 19e en 20e eeuw [Historiography since 1945 on Catholic life in the Netherlands in the 19th and 20th centuries] (part II). Trajecta, 5, 213–242.
Wolffram, D. J. (1993). Bezwaarden en verlichten: Verzuiling in een Gelderse provinciestad, Harderwijk 1850–1925 [The troubled and the enlightened: Pillarization in the provincial town of Harderwijk, Gelderland, 1850–1925]. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.
Zahn, E. (1984). Das unbekannte Holland: Regenten, Rebellen und Reformatoren. [The unknown Holland: Regents, rebels and reformers] Berlin: Siedler.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Belzen, J.A. (2010). Religion and the Social Order. In: Towards Cultural Psychology of Religion. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3491-5_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3491-5_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-90-481-3490-8
Online ISBN: 978-90-481-3491-5
eBook Packages: Behavioral ScienceBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)