Abstract
In this chapter the author takes an experimental approach, observing the Zhuangzi’s philosophy as a coherent system of three dimensions. This historical and text-based orientation aims to approximate the construction of Zhuangzi’s thought by looking at internal evidence, rather than create a modern reconstruction. The first dimension is the mundane world of predicaments and inevitability (ming), from which Zhuangzi wants to escape. The second is the kingdom of spiritual freedom, which is where Zhuangzi can enjoy himself in transcendent carefree wandering (xiaoyao). The third dimension provides argumentation about the questions of why and how one can ascend from the mundane dimension to the transcendent one. This third dimension is comprised of the theories of equalizing things (qiwu) and not-knowing (buzhi). Throughout these three dimensions, one can see the penetration of Dao’s function and features.
The author is grateful to Dr. Wang Xiaohong, who helped with the first draft of this chapter, though the author himself takes full responsibility for any mistakes and faults.
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There are essential orientations in Chinese philosophical studies. One is historical and textual, and tries to approximate the possible theoretical truth of a system of thought; the other is a modern philosophical creation—a variation on a theme, so to speak. Though there may not be a sharp gap between the two, a researcher’s orientation should be self-consciousness and clear. Philosophical reconstructions, then, either try to reconstruct the philosophical system according to best evidence of historical truth or engage in new philosophical developments to address social needs. See X. Liu 2008–2009 (English) and X. Liu 2009 (Chinese).
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All translations of the Zhuangzi in this chapter are adopted with modification from Watson 1968, Mair 1998, Graham 1981, and Chan 1963. Two Chinese commentaries are often consulted: Chen 1983, Fang and Lu 2007. Due to limited time, the author failed to consult Ziporyn 2009, though I believe it deserves our attention. The basic Chinese version the author used is Guo 1978. The author’s translation follows two principles: (1) to be faithful to the original Chinese texts themselves; (2) to make the translation readable for philosophical students who have no background in sinological training. The translation of the first two sentences in this citation is based on Zhang Binglin’s 章炳麟 interpretation, cited in Chan 1963:180.
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Here “maker of things” is A.C. Graham’s translation for zaowuzhe 造物者, while other translations are Creator, which might suggest God. Nevertheless, in Daoist theory, the source of the universe is never God or gods who produce the world according to will or plan.
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To “release from hanging” is my translation of (xuanjie 懸解). Here the original character xian 縣 was borrowed for xuan 懸. Chan gives a useful comment on this “release.” He said: “Release here means spiritual freedom and is to be sharply differentiated from Buddhist Nivana” (Chan 1963: 197).
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It is clear that Chapter 1 is praising the huge Peng, but some scholars read Chapter 2’s theory of equalizing things back into this chapter and think the author means there is equality between Peng and the little birds. We will address this issue when we deal with the third dimension.
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The third term, jiandu 見獨, is a selection from the text I have made for narrative convenience.
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I translate the Chinese word shou 守 as “meditate” rather than “keeping,” following from the Daoist term shouyi 守一, which is a special set of self-cultivation practices for pursuing longevity. Shouyi is a kind of meditation in a broad sense. The importance of shou may start from the Laozi, in which the term shouzhong 守中 (meditating on the centrality) was presented and the word shou is repeatedly used.
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Here “transcend” is Wing-tsit Chan’s translation for wai 外. Its actual meaning is something like “to forget.”
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The terms “transformational oppositions and oppositional transformations” were suggested by Douglas L. Berger in a personal communication.
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The work described in this paper was partially supported by a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China. (Project no. CUHK447909)
References
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Liu, X. (2015). Zhuangzi’s Philosophy: A Three Dimensional Reconstruction. In: Liu, X. (eds) Dao Companion to Daoist Philosophy. Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy, vol 6. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2927-0_8
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