Abstract
The mandala is a polysemantic term referring to several distinct yet interrelated architectural and imperial concepts. In addition to this com plexity, however, the mandala’s multivalency is further compounded by layers of nineteenth- and twentieth-century interpretations that have added reductionistic Jungian associations and/or anachronistic Orientalist expectations onto the image. This essay attempts to strip away such accretions and assumptions. It calls for the recognition of the variety and distinctiveness of early Japanese mandalas and aims to resuscitate the role of the mandala in picturing, but not necessarily producing, enlightenment. As a result, this essay will attempt to return to basics and reconsider two key types of Japanese Buddhist mandalas on their own terms. Specifically, it will provide an iconographic and doctrinal analysis of the eighth-century Taima mandala (J. Taima mandara 当麻曼荼羅) of Amitābha/Amitāyus Buddha (J. Amida nyorai 阿弥陀如来) in his Pure Land of the Western Paradise. It will also examine the famous pair of ninth-century Two-World mandalas (J. Ryōkai mandara 両界曼荼羅), which depict the Diamond and the Womb World aspects of Mahāvairocana Buddha (J. Dainichi nyorai 大日如来), the cosmic buddha of great light who illumines all equally. The essay concludes with a final reflection on the Taima and Two-World mandalas, as both are unique examples and emblematic models for two distinct Japanese Buddhist worldviews.
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Notes
- 1.
Personal communication with the author, Fall 2001, Kyoto, Japan.
- 2.
DDB accessed 9/9/10. Ten Grotenhuis believes that some versions of this sūtra date to the second or third centuries C.E. (ten Grotenhuis 1999: 16).
- 3.
Mason offers a competing iconographic reading of the images that substitutes (2) moon (9) The Great Body of Amida (10) Amida in the half-lotus position and (13) The Small Body of Amida (Mason 1993: 169).
- 4.
In this context, the “noumenal” refers to the immaterial, mental dimension of the Diamond World’s cognitive wisdoms, as opposed to the Womb World’s material, physical dimension of concrete phenomena.
- 5.
Most notably, Dainichi’s distinctive “wisdom fist mudrā ” (J. chiken’in 智拳印, Skt. jñānamudrā) in the Diamond World mandala embraces the erect right index finger of adamantine wisdom with all left hand digits of compassionate method, and rock-hard, Diamond-like vajras poke out from between each soft red petal of the Womb World’s unfolding lotus blossom. It is true that the sexual connotations of such imagery is fairly explicit, and that, historically speaking, heterodox movements such as the 12th–14th century Tachikawa sect combined tantric sex practices with Daoist yin-yang theory to literally embody Shingon’s doctrine of nondualism. However, from a doctrinal perspective, such interpretations were deemed heretical and banned. For more on the Tachikawa sect see Faure (2000: 543).
- 6.
The order for discussing the nine halls of the Diamond World mandala follows Gengō’s 元杲 (914–995) clockwise spiral analysis beginning with the center, descending down, to the left, up, around and down to the right. Gengō also provides a counter-clockwise analysis starting in the lower right corner and ascending up and around to the left.
- 7.
As Hakeda points out, Śubhākarasiṃha (637–735) and Bukong’s 不空 (705–774) commentaries invert the correspondences between the five elements and the five wisdom buddhas (Hakeda 1972: 240 n. 24). Presented here are Śubhākarasiṃha’s correspondences, corrected from Hakeda’s misordering of Amida and Ratnasambhava.
- 8.
It is for this reason that in Japan the geometric five-element stupa is often used as a grave marker, as it represents the breakdown of the deceased’s physical and mental constituents and their reintegration back into the enlightened makeup of the dharmadhātu.
- 9.
The great Sōtō Zen master Dōgen Kigen 道元希玄 (1200–1253) came to a similar conclusion when he preached that practice = realization.
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Winfield, P.D. (2019). The Philosophy of the Mandala. In: Kopf, G. (eds) The Dao Companion to Japanese Buddhist Philosophy. Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy, vol 8. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2924-9_8
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