Abstract
The impact of modern agriculture on natural resources has become a major global concern. Population growth and expanding demand for agricultural products constantly increase the pressure on land and water resources. A major point of concern for many intensively managed agricultural systems with high external inputs is the low resource-use efficiency, especially for nitrogen. A high input combined with a low efficiency ultimately results in environmental problems such as soil degradation, eutrophication, pollution of groundwater, and emission of ammonia and greenhouse gases. Evidently, there is a need for a transition of current agricultural systems into highly resource-use efficient systems that are profitable, but at the same time ecologically safe and socially acceptable. Here, opportunities to improve nitrogen-use efficiency in cropping and farming systems are analyzed and discussed. In the past and present, increased productivity of the major plant production systems has been derived from genetic improvement, and from greater use of external inputs such as energy, fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water. Aiming at improving resource-use efficiencies, in high-input systems the focus should be on more yield with less fertilizer N. In low-input systems additional use of N fertilizer may be required to increase yield level and yield stability. Developing production systems that meet the goals of sustainable agriculture requires research on different scales, from single crops to diverse cropping and farming systems. It is concluded that N supply should match N demand in time and space, not only for single crops but for a crop rotation as an integrated system, in order to achieve a higher agronomic N-use efficiency. A combination of quantitative systems research, development of best practices and legislation will be needed to develop more environmentally-friendly agricultural systems. The growing complexity of managing N in sustainable agricultural systems calls for problem-oriented, interdisciplinary research.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aarts H.F.M. Biewinga E.E., van Keulen H. (1992) Dairy farming systems based on efficient nutrient management, Neth. J. Agr. Sci. 40, 285–299.
Aggarwal P.K., Kropff M.J., Cassman K.G., ten Berge H.F.M. (1997) Simulating genotypic strategies for increasing rice yield potential in irrigated, tropical environments, Field Crop. Res. 51, 5–17.
Altieri M.A. (1995) Agroecology: the science of sustainable agriculture, Westview, Boulder, CO.
Asteraki E.J., Hart B.J., Ings T.C., Manley W.J. (2004) Factors influencing the plant and invertebrate diversity of arable field margins, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 102, 219–231.
Badgley C., Moghtar J., Quintero E., Zakem E., Chappell M.J., Aviles-Vazques K., Samulon A., Perfecto I. (2007) Organic agriculture and the global food supply, Renew. Agr. Food Syst. 22, 86–101.
Barrios E. (2007) Soil biota, ecosystem services and land productivity, Ecol. Econ. 64, 269–285.
Becker M., Asch F., Maskey S.L., Pande K.R., Shah S.C., Shrestha S. (2007) Effects of transition season management on soil N dynamics and systems N balances in rice–wheat rotations of Nepal, Field Crop. Res. 103, 98–108.
Beegle D.B., Carton O.T., Bailey J.S. (2000) Nutrient management planning: justification, theory, practices, J. Environ. Qual. 29, 72–79.
Belder P., Spiertz J.H.J., Bouman B.A.M., Guoan Lu, Tuong T.P. (2005a) Nitrogen economy and water productivity of lowland rice under water saving management, Field Crop. Res. 93, 169–185.
Belder P., Bouman B.A.M., Spiertz J.H.J., Peng S., Castaneda A.R., Visperas R.M. (2005b) Crop performance, nitrogen and water use in flooded and aerobic rice, Plant Soil 273, 167–182.
Biemond H., Vos J. (1992) Effects of nitrogen and the development and growth of the potato plant. 2. The partitioning of dry matter, nitrogen and nitrate, Ann. Bot. 70, 37–45.
Boling A., Tuong T.P., Jatmiko S.Y., Burac M.A. (2004) Yield constraints of rainfed lowland rice in Central Java, Indonesia, Field Crop. Res. 90, 351–360.
Booij R., Kreuzer A.D.H., Smit A.L., van der Werf A. (1996) Effect of nitrogen availability on dry matter production, nitrogen uptake, and light interception of Brussels sprouts and leeks, Neth. J. Agr. Sci. 44, 3–19.
Borlaug N.E. (2007) Sixty-two years of fighting hunger: personal recollections, Euphytica 157, 287–297.
Bouman B.A.M. (2007) A conceptual framework for the improvement of crop water productivity at different spatial scales, Agr. Syst. 93, 43–60.
Bouman B.A.M., Van Keulen H., Van Laar H.H., Rabbinge R. (1996) The ‘School of De Wit’ crop growth simulation models: a pedigree and historical overview, Agr. Syst. 52, 171–198.
Bouman B.A.M., Humphreys E., Tuong T.P., Barker R. (2007a) Rice and Water, Adv. Agron. 92, 187–237.
Bouman B.A.M., Feng Liping, Tuong T.P., Lu Guoan, Wang Huaqi, Feng Yueha (2007b) Exploring options to grow rice using less water in northern China using a modelling approach II. Quantifying yield, water balance components and water productivity, Agr. Water Manage. 88, 23–33.
Brussaard L., de Ruiter P.C., Brown G.G. (2007) Soil biodiversity for agricultural sustainability, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 121, 233–244.
Bussink D.W., Oenema O. (1998) Ammonia volatilization from dairy farming systems in temperate areas: a review, Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 51, 19–33.
Cabrera-Bosquet L., Molero G., Bort J., Nogues S., Araus J.L. (2007) The combined effect of constant water deficit and nitrogen supply on WUE, NUE and Δ13C in durum wheat potted plants, Ann. Appl. Biol. 151, 277–289.
Campbell C.A., Myers R.J.K., Curtin D. (1995) Managing nitrogen for sustainable crop production, Fertil. Res. 42, 277–296.
Cassman K.G., Kropff M.J., Gaunt J., Peng S. (1993) Nitrogen use efficiency of irrigated rice: what are the key constraints, Plant Soil 155–156, 359–362.
Cassman K.G., Dobermann A., Walters D.T., Yang H.(2003) Meeting cereal demand while protecting natural resources and improving environmental quality, Ann. Rev. Env. Res. 28, 10.1–10.44.
Chapman A.L., Muchow R.C. (1985) Nitrogen accumulated and partitioned at maturity by grain legumes under different water regimes in a semi-arid tropical environment, Field Crop. Res. 11, 69–79.
Connor D.J. (2008) Organic agriculture cannot feed the world, Field Crop. Res. 106, 187–190.
De Willigen, P., van Noordwijk M. (1987) Roots for plant production and nutrient use efficiency, PhD-thesis, Agricultural University, Wageningen, 282 p.
De Wit C.T. (1992) Resource use efficiency, Agr. Syst. 40, 125–151.
Delgado J.A., Shaffer M., Hu C., Lavado R., Cueto-Wong J., Joosse P., Sotomayer D., Colon W., Follett R., DelGrosso S., Li X., Rimski-Korsakov H. (2008) An index approach to assess nitrogen losses to the environment, Ecol. Eng. 32, 108–120.
Dimitrakopoulos P.G., Schmid B. (2004) Biodiversity effects increase linearly with biotope space, Ecol. Lett. 7, 574–583.
Dobermann A., Cassman K.G. (2002) Plant nutrient management for enhanced productivity in intensive grain production systems of the United States and Asia, Plant Soil 247, 153–175.
Dreccer M.F., van Oijen M., Schapendonk A.H.C.M., Pot C.S., Rabbinge R. (2000) Dynamics of vertical nitrogen distribution in a vegetative wheat canopy. Impact on canopy photosynthesis, Ann. Bot. 86, 821–831.
Drinkwater L.E., Snapp S.S. (2007) Nutrients in Agroecosystems: rethinking the management paradigm, Adv. Agron. 92, 163–186.
Eickhout B., Bouwman A.F., van Zeijts H. (2006) The role of nitrogen in world food production and environmental sustainability, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 116, 4–14.
Erisman J.W., Bleeker A., Galloway J., Sutton M.S. (2007) Reduced nitrogen in ecology and the environment, Environ. Pollut. 150, 140–149.
Evans L.T. (1999) Step towards feeding the Ten Billion, Plant Prod. Sci. 2, 3–9.
Evans L.T., Fischer R.A. (1999) Yield potential: its definition, measurement and significance, Crop. Sci. 39, 1544–1551.
Fan M., Lu S., Jiang R., Liu X., Zeng X., Goulding K.W.T., Zhang F. (2007) Nitrogen input, 15N balance and mineral N dynamics in a rice–wheat rotation in southwest China, Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 79, 255–265.
Fornara D.A., Tilman D. (2008) Plant functional composition influences rates of soil carbon and nitrogen accumulation, J. Ecol. 96, 314–322.
Galloway J.N. (1998) The global nitrogen cycle: changes and consequences in: K.W. van der Hoek et al. (Eds.), Nitrogen, the Confer-N-s, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 15–26.
Galloway J.N., Aber J.D., Erisman J.W., Seitzinger S.P., Howarth R.W., Cowling E.B., Cosby B.J., (2003) The nitrogen cascade, Bioscience 53, 341–356.
Giller K.E., Rowe E.C., de Ridder N., van Keulen H. (2006) Resource use dynamics and interactions in the tropics: Scaling up in space and time, Agr. Syst. 88, 8–27.
Goudriaan J., Groot J.J.R., Uithol P.W.J. (2001) Productivity of Agro-ecosystems in: Roy J., Saugier B., Mooney H.A. (Eds.), Terrestrial Global Productivity, Academic, San Diego, pp. 310–313.
Goulding K., Jarvis S., Whitmore A. (2008) Optimizing nutrient management for farm systems, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B 363, 667–680.
Gupta R., Seth A. (2007) A review of resource conserving technologies for sustainable management of the rice–wheat cropping systems of the Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP), Crop. Prot. 26, 436–447.
Hajjar R., Jarvis D.I., Gemmill-Herren B. (2008) The utility of crop genetic diversity in maintaining ecosystem services, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 123, 261–270.
Hansen S., de Ridder W. (2007) Agri-based alternative energy, Risks and opportunities for the farming industry. Rabobank International, The Netherlands, 68 p.
Hazell P., Wood S. (2008) Drivers of change in global agriculture Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B 363, 495–515.
Herridge D.F., Peoples M.B., Boddey R.M. (2008) Global inputs of biological nitrogen fixation in agricultural systems, Plant Soil 311, 1–18.
Hikosaka K. (2004) Interspecific differences in the photosynthesis–nitrogen relationship: patterns, physiological causes and ecological importance, J. Plant Res.117, 481–494.
Hobbs P.R., Sayre Ken, Gupta Raj (2008) The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B 363, 543–555.
Howden S.M., Soussana J.-F., Tubiello F.N., Chhetri N., Dunlop M., Meinke H. (2007) Adapting agriculture to climate change, PNAS 104, 19691–19696.
Jiang L., Dai T., Jiang D., Cao W., Gan X., Wei S. (2004) Characterizing physiological N-use efficiency as influenced by nitrogen management Field Crop. Res. 2004, 239–250.
Keating B.A., Carberry P.S. (1993) Resource capture and use in intercropping – solar radiation, Field Crop. Res. 34, 273–301.
Kichey Th., Hirel B., Heumez E., Dubois F., Le Gouis J. (2007) In winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), post-anthesis nitrogen uptake and remobilization to the grain correlates with agronomic traits and nitrogen physiological markers, Field Crop. Res. 102, 22–32.
Knowles T., Moody R., McEachern M.G. (2007) European food scares and their impact on EU food policy, Brit. Food J. 1, 43–67.
Kyllingsbaek A., Hansen J.F. (2007) Development in nutrient balances in Danish agriculture 1980–2004, Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 79, 267–280.
Ladha J.K., Pathak H., Krupnik T.J., Six J., van Kessel C. (2005) Efficiency of fertilizer nitrogen in cereal production: retrospects and prospects, Adv. Agron. 87, 85–156.
Lal R. (2008) Soils and sustainable agriculture, A review, Agron. Sustain. Dev. 28, 57–64.
Langeveld J.W.A., Verhagen A., Neeteson J.J., van Keulen H., Conijn J.G., Schils R.L.M., Oenema J. (2007) Evaluating farm performance using agri-environmental indicators: Recent experiences for nitrogen management in The Netherlands, J. Environ. Manage. 82, 363–376.
Laperche A., Devienne-Barret F., Maury O., Le Gouis J., Ney B. (2006) A simplified conceptual model of carbon/nitrogen functioning for QTL analysis of winter wheat adaptation to nitrogen deficiency, Theor. Appl. Genet. 113, 1131–1146.
Lemaire G., Oosterom E., Sheehy J., Jeuffroy M.H., Massignam A., Rossato L. (2007) Is crop N demand more closely related to dry matter accumulation or leaf area expansion during vegetative growth? Field Crop. Res. 100, 91–106.
Lloveras J., Chocarro C., Freixes O., Arque E., Moreno A., Santiver F. (2008) Yield, yield components, and forage nutritive value of alfalfa as affected by seeding rate under irrigated conditions, Agron. J. 100, 191–197.
López-Bellido R.J., Castillo J.E., López-Bellido L. (2008) Comparative response of bread and durum wheat cultivars to nitrogen fertilizer in a rainfed Mediterranean environment: soil nitrate and N uptake and efficiency, Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 80, 121–130.
Martre P., Semenov M.A., Jamieson P.D. (2007) Simulation analysis of physiological traits to improve yield, nitrogen use efficiency and grain protein concentration in wheat, in: Spiertz J.H.J., Struik P.C., Van Laar H.H. (Eds.), Scale and Complexity in Plant Systems Research: Gene–Plant–Crop Relations, Wageningen UR Frontis Series, Springer, Berlin, pp. 181–201.
Massey R.E., Myers D.B., Kitchen N.R., Sudduth K.A. (2008) Profitability maps as an input for site- specific management decision making, Agron. J. 100, 52–59.
Matson P.A., Parton W.J., Power A.G., Swift M.J. (1997) Agricultural intensification and ecosystems properties, Science 277, 504–509.
McDonald A.J., Hobbs P.R., Riha S.J. (2006) Does the system of rice intensification outperform conventional best management, A synopsis of the empirical record, Field Crop. Res. 96, 31–36.
Neeteson J.J., Schröder J.J., Ten Berge H.F.M. (2002) A multi-scale system approach to nutrient management research in the Netherlands, NJAS Wageningen J. Life Sci. 50, 141–151.
OECD (2001) Environmental Indicators for Agriculture: Methods and Results, Vol. 3, OECD, Paris.
Oehme M., Frei M., Razzak M.A., Dewan S., Becker K. (2007) Studies on nitrogen cycling under different nitrogen inputs in integrated rice–fish culture in Bangladesh, Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 79, 181–191.
Oerlemans J., Von Oberfeld W.O., Wolf D. (2007) Impact of long-term nutrient supply on plant species diversity in grassland: and experimental approach on conventionally used pastures, J. Appl. Bot. Food Qual. 81, 151–157.
Olesen J.E., Bindi M. (2002) Consequences of climate change for European Agricultural productivity, land use and policy, Eur. J. Agron. 16, 239–262.
Olson D.M., Wäckers F.G. (2007) Management of field margins to maximize multiple ecological services, J. Appl. Ecol. 44, 13–21.
Pande K.R., Becker M. (2003) Seasonal soil nitrogen dynamics in rice–wheat cropping systems of Nepal, J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 166, 499–506.
Peng S., Bouman B.A.M. (2007) Prospects for genetic improvement to increase lowland rice yields with less water and nitrogen, in: Spiertz J.H.J., Struik P.C., Van Laar H.H. (Eds.), Scale and Complexity in Plant Systems Research: Gene–Plant–Crop Relations, Springer, Berlin, pp. 251–266.
Peng S., Cassman K.G., Virmani S.S., Sheehy J., Khush G.S. (1999) Yield potential trends of tropical rice since the release of IR8 and the challenge of increasing rice yield potential, Crop. Sci. 39, 1552–1559.
Penning de Vries F.W.T., Rabbinge R., Groot J.J.R. (1997) Potential and attainable food production and food security in different regions, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B 352, 917–928.
Pierce F.P., Nowak P. (1999) Aspects of precision farming, Adv. Agron. 67, 1–85.
Pretty J. (2008) Agricultural sustainability: concepts, principles and evidence, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B 363, 447–465.
Rasmussen P.E., Goulding K.W.T., Brown J.R., Grace P.R., Janzen H.H., Körschens M. (1998) Long-term agroecosystems experiments: assessing agricultural sustainability and global change, Science 282, 893–896.
Rembialkowska E. (2007) Quality of plant products from organic agriculture, J. Sci. Food Agr. 87, 2757–2762.
Rossing W.A.H., Zander P., Josien E., Groot J.C.J., Neyer B.C., Knierim A. (2007) Intergrative modelling approaches for analysis of impact of multifunctional agriculture: A review for France, Germany and The Netherlands, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 120, 41–57.
Russell G., Jarvis P.G., Monteith J.L. (1989) Absorption of radiation by canopies and stand growth, in: Russell G. (Ed.), Plant canopy: their growth, form and function, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 21–39.
Saito K., Atlin G.N., Linquist B., Phanthaboon K., Shiraiwa T., Horie T. (2007) Performance of traditional and improved upland rice cultivars under nonfertilized and fertilized conditions in northern Laos, Crop. Sci. 47, 2473–2481.
Samonte S.O.P.B., Wilson L.T., Medley J.C., Pinson S.R.M., Clung A.M., Lales J.S. (2006) Nitrogen utilization efficiency: Relationships with grain yield, grain protein and yield-related traits in rice, Agron. J. 98, 168–176.
Schröder J.J., Aarts H.F.M., ten Berge H.F.M., van Keulen H., Neeteson J.J. (2003) An evaluation of whole-farm nitrogen balances and related indices for efficient nitrogen use, Eur. J. Agron. 20, 33–44.
Sheridan H., Finn J.A., Culleton N. O’Donovan G. (2008) Plant and invertebrate diversity in grassland field margins, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 123, 225–232.
Shibu M.E., Leffelaar P.A., van Keulen H., Aggerwal P.K. (2006) Quantitative description of soil organic matter dynamics – A review of approaches with reference to rice-based cropping systems, Geoderma 137, 1–18.
Sibma L., Spiertz J.H.J. (1986) Dry matter production and nitrogen utilization in cropping systems with grass, lucerne and maize. 1. Comparison of crop characteristics, growth and production, Neth. J. Agr. Sci. 34, 25–35.
Sinclair T.R., De Wit C.T. (1975) Photosynthate and nitrogen requirements for seed production by various crops, Science 189, 565–567.
Sinclair T.R., Horie T. (1989) Leaf nitrogen, photosynthesis, and crop radiation use efficiency – A review, Crop Sci. 29, 90–98.
Spiertz J.H.J., Ellen J. (1978) Effects of nitrogen on crop development and grain growth of winter wheat in relation to assimilation and utilization of assimilates and nutrients, Neth. J. Agr. Sci. 26, 210–231.
Spiertz J.H.J., De Vos N.M. (1983) Agronomical and physiological aspects of the role of nitrogen in yield formation of cereals, Plant Soil 75, 379–391.
Spiertz J.H.J., Sibma L. (1986) Dry matter production and nitrogen utilization in cropping systems with grass, lucerne and maize. 2. Nitrogen yield and utilization with various cropping systems and their after-effects, Neth. J. Agr. Sci. 34, 37–47.
Spiertz J.H.J., Oenema O. (2005) Resource use efficiency and management of nutrients in agricultural systems in: ERSEC Ecological Book Series – 1. On sustainable agricultural systems. Tsinghua University Press and Springer, Berlin, pp. 171–183.
Stehfest E., Bouwman L. (2006) N2O and NO emission from agricultural fields and soils under natural vegetation: summarizing available measurement data and modeling of global annual emissions, Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 74, 207–228.
Stockdale E.A., Gaunt J.L., Vos J. (1997) Soil–plant nitrogen dynamics: what concepts are required? Eur. J. Agron. 7, 145–159.
Stoorvogel J.J., Antle J.M., Crissman C.C., Bowen W. (2004) The tradeoff analysis model: integrated bio-physical and economic modelling of agricultural production systems, Agr. Syst. 80, 43–66.
Storkey J., Westbury D.B. (2007) Managing arable weeds for biodiversity, Pest Manage. Sci. 63, 517–523.
Struik P.C., Bonciarelli F. (1997) Resource use at the cropping system level, Eur. J. Agron.7, 133–143.
Suding K.N., Collins S.L., Gough L., Clark Ch., Cleland E.E., Gross K.L., Milchunas D.G., Pennings S. (2005) Functional- and abundance-based mechanisms explain diversity loss due to N fertilization, PNAS 102, 4387–4392.
Swift M.J., Izac A.-M.N., van Noordwijk M. (2004) Biodiversity and ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 104, 113–134.
Tait J. (2001) Science, governance and multifunctionality of European agriculture, Outlook Agr. 30, 91–95.
Ten Berge H.F.M., Kropff M.J. (1995) Founding a systems research network for rice in: Bouma et al. (Eds.), Eco-regional approaches for sustainable land use and food production, Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 263–282.
Ten Berge H.F.M., Riethoven J.J.M. (1997) Applications of a simple rice-nitrogen model in: Ando T. et al. (Eds.), Plant nutrition for sustainable food production and environment, Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 793–798.
Tipraqsa P., Craswell E.T., Noble A.T., Schmidt-Vogt D. (2007) Resource integration for multiple benefits: Multifunctionality of integrated farming systems in northeast Thailand, Agr. Syst. 94, 694–703.
Topp C.F.E., Stockdale E.A., Watson C.A., Rees R.M. (2007) Estimating resource use efficiencies in organic agriculture: a review of budgeting approaches, J. Sci. Food Agr. 87, 2782–2790.
UNEP (2007) Reactive Nitrogen in the Environment, Too Much or too Little of a good Thing. The Woods Hole Research Center, USA and UNEP DTIE Sustainable Consumption and Production Branch, Paris, France, 51 p. [ISBN 978 92 807 2783 8].
Van Delden A. (2001) Yield and growth components of potato and wheat under organic nitrogen management, Agron. J. 93, 1370–1385.
Van der Werf H.M.G., Tzilivakis J., Lewis K., Basset-Mens C. (2007) Environmental impacts of farm scenarios according to five assessment methods, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 118, 327–338.
Van Egmond K., Bresser T., Bouwman L. (2002) The European Nitrogen Case, Ambio 31, 72–78.
Van Ginkel M., Ortiz-Monasterio I., Trethowan R., Hernandez E. (2001) Methodology for selecting segregating populations for improved N-use efficiency in bread wheat, Euphytica 119, 223–230.
Van Keulen H. (2007) Quantitative analyses of natural resource management options at different scales, Agr. Syst. 94, 768–783.
Van Keulen H., Aarts H.F.M., Habekotte B., van der Meer H.G., Spiertz J.H.J. (2000) Soil–plant–animal relations in nutrient cycling: the case of dairy farming system ‘De Marke’, Eur. J. Agron. 13, 245–261.
Van Noordwijk M., Cadish G. (2002) Access and excess problems in plant nutrition, Plant Soil 247, 25–40.
Van Ruijven J., Berendse F. (2005) Diversity-productivity relationships: Initial effects, long-term patterns, and underlying mechanisms, PNAS 102, 695–700.
Wilkins R.J. (2008) Eco-efficient approaches to land management: a case for increased integration of crop and animal production systems, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B 363, 517–525.
Wilkinson P., Smith K.R., Joffe M., Haines A. (2007) Energy and Health 1: A global perspective on energy: health effects and injustices, The Lancet 370, 965–978.
Yang H.S. (2006) Resource management, soil fertility and sustainable crop production: Experiences of China, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 116, 27–33.
Yang X., Bouman B.A.M., Wang H., Wang Z., Zhao J., Chen B. (2005) Performance of temperate aerobic rice under different water regimes, Agr. Water Manage. 74, 107–122.
Yin X., Van Laar H.H. (2005) Crop Systems Dynamics: An ecophysiological simulation model for genotype-by-environment interactions. Wageningen, The Netherlands, 153 p. [ISBN 907 69 985 82].
Zhang L., Spiertz J.H.J., Zhang S., Li B., van der Werf W. (2008) Nitrogen economy in relay intercropping systems of wheat and cotton, Plant Soil 303, 55–68.
Zhao J., Luo Q., Deng H., Yan Y. (2008) Opportunities and challenges of sustainable agricultural development in China, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B 363, 893–904.
Acknowledgements
The comments of Prof. Oene Oenema (Alterra, Environmental Sciences Group), Dr. Jacques Neeteson (Plant Research International, Plant Sciences Group) and Dr. Jan Vos (Crop and Weed Ecology, Plant Sciences Group) of Wageningen University and Research Center have contributed to shaping the content of the paper and to improving the scientific soundness.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media B.V
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Spiertz, J.H.J. (2009). Nitrogen, Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security: A Review. In: Lichtfouse, E., Navarrete, M., Debaeke, P., Véronique, S., Alberola, C. (eds) Sustainable Agriculture. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2666-8_39
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2666-8_39
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-90-481-2665-1
Online ISBN: 978-90-481-2666-8
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)