Abstract
The term sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) is used to refer to a variety of clinical syndromes caused by pathogens that can be acquired and transmitted through sexual activity. STDs are among the most common infectious diseases, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is of major public health importance worldwide. Transgender communities are among the groups at highest risk for HIV and other STD infections. The high burden of HIV infection among transgender people is not attributable only to individual behaviors but also to many cultural, socioeconomic, and health-related factors. HIV prevention involves combinations of behavioral strategies, early antiretroviral therapy (ART) after infection, preexposure and postexposure antiretroviral prophylaxis. The use of antiretroviral agents as postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) is the most important strategy for preventing occupationally acquired HIV infection among health-care workers (HCW).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Kasper DL, Braunwald E (2005) Harrison’s principles of internal medicine, 16th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York
Hankins C (2013) Overview of the current state of the epidemic. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 10:113–123
HIV/AIDS surveillance in Europe 2012. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/communicable-diseases/hivaids/publications/2012/hivaids-surveillance-in-europe-2011
UNAIDS (2012) Global report 2012 UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic. United Nations Publications, Geneve
HIV among transgender people. http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/transgender/
Institute of Medicine (2011) The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people: building a foundation for better understanding. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC
New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (2011) Surveillance slide sets: HIV among transgender persons in New York City, 2005–2009. Accessed Oct 2013
Herbst JH, Jacobs ED, Finlayson TJ, McKleroy VS, Neumann MS, Crepaz N (2008) Estimating HIV prevalence and risk behaviors of transgender persons in the United States: a systematic review. AIDS Behav 12(1):1–17
Operario D, Soma T, Underhill K (2008) Sex work and HIV status among transgender women: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 48:97–103
Baral SD, Poteat T, Strömdahl S, Wirtz AL, Guadamuz TE, Beyrer C (2013) Worldwide burden of HIV in transgender women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 13:214–222
Clements-Nolle K, Marx R, Guzman R, Katz M (2001) HIV prevalence, risk behaviors, health care use, and mental health status of transgender persons: implications for public health intervention. Am J Public Health 91:915–921
Baggaley RF, White RG, Boily MC (2010) HIV transmission risk through anal intercourse: systematic review, meta-analysis and implications for HIV prevention. Int J Epidemiol 39:1048–1063
Coan DL, Schrager W, Packer T (2005) The role of male sexual partners in HIV infection among male-to-female transgendered individuals. Int J Transgenderism 8:21–30
Vandepitte J, Lyerla R, Dallabetta G et al (2006) Estimates of the number of female sex workers in different regions of the world. Sex Transm Infect 82(Suppl 3):S18–S25
Beyrer C, Baral SD, van Griensven F et al (2012) Global epidemiology of HIV infection in men who have sex with men. Lancet 380:367–377
Grant JM, Mottet LA, Tanis J, Harrison J, Herman JL, Keisling M (2011) Injustice at every turn: a report of the national transgender discrimination survey. The National Gay and Lesbian Task Force and the National Center for Transgender Equality, Washington, DC
Melendez RM, Pinto R (2007) ‘It’s really a hard life’: love, gender and HIV risk among male-to-female transgender persons. Cult Health Sex 9:233–245
Cohen MS, Smith MK, Muessig KE, Hallett TB, Powers KA, Kashuba AD (2013) Antiretroviral treatment of HIV-1 prevents transmission of HIV-1: where do we go from here? Lancet 382:1515–1524
Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M et al; the HPTN 059 Study Team (2011) Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy N Engl J Med 365:493–505
World Health Organization. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection (2013) http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/arv2013/download/en/index.html. Accessed 19 Aug 2013
US Department of Health and Human Services. Panel on antiretroviral guidelines for adults and adolescents (2012): guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1 infected adults and adolescents (2012) http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/adultandadoloscentgl.pdf. Accessed 3 Aug 2013
Mayer K, Gazzard B, Zuniga JM et al (2013) Controlling the HIV epidemic with antiretrovirals: IAPAC consensus statement on treatment as prevention and preexposure prophylaxis. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care 12:208–216
Abdool Karim Q, Abdool Karim SS, Frohlich JA et al (2010) Effectiveness and safety of tenofovir gel, an antiretroviral microbicide, for the prevention of HIV infection in women. Science 329:1168–1174
Grant RM, Larna JM, Anderson PL et al (2010) Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med 363:2587–2599
Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P et al (2012) Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med 367:399–410
Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA et al (2012) Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med 367:423–434
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2011) Interim guidance: preexposure prophylaxis for prevention of HIV infection in men who have sex with men. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 60:65–68
Krakower D, Mayer KH (2012) What primary care providers need to know about preexposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention. Ann Intern Med 157:490–497
Peinado J, Lama JR, Galea JT et al (2013) Acceptability of oral versus rectal HIV preexposure prophylaxis among men who have sex with men and transgender women in Peru. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care 12:278–283
Spira AI, Marx PA, Patterson BK et al (1996) Cellular targets of infection and route of viral dissemination after an intravaginal inoculation of simian immunodeficiency virus into rhesus macaques. J Exp Med 183:215–225
Smith DK, Grohskopf LA, Black RJ et al (2005) US Department of Health and Human Services. Antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection-drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV in the United States: recommendations from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. MMWR Recomm Rep 54:1–20
Cardo DM, Culver DH, Ciesielski CA et al (1997) A case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood: clinical and public health implications. N Engl J Med 337:1485–1490
Harrison LH, Lago RF, Moreira RI, Schechter M (2000) Demand for post-sexual-exposure chemoprophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in Brazil. 7th Conference on retroviruses and opportunistic infections, San Francisco, Jan 30–Feb 2 2000 (Abstract 492)
Benn P, Fisher M, Kulasegaram R (2011) UK guideline for the use of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure. Int J STD AIDS 22:695–708
McAllister J, Read P, McNulty A, Tong W, Ingersoll A, Carr A (2014) Raltegravir-emtricitabine-tenofovir as HIV nonoccupational post-exposure prophylaxis in men who have sex with men: safety, tolerability and adherence. HIV Med 15:13–22
Millett GA, Flores SA, Marks G et al (2008) Circumcision status and risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with man: a meta-analysis. JAMA 300:1674–1684
Grohskopf LA, Smith DK, Kunches LK et al (2002) Surveillance of post-exposure prophylaxis for non-occupational HIV exposures through the U.S. national registry. Presented at the XIV international conference on AIDS, Barcelona, July 7–12 2002 (Abstract MoOrD1107)
Tissot F, Erard V, Dang T, Cavassini M (2010) Nonoccupational HIV post-exposure prophylaxis: a ten year retrospective analysis. HIV Med 11:584–592
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1990) Public Health Service statement on management of occupational exposure to human immunodeficiency virus, including considerations regarding zidovudine postexposure use. MMWR Recomm Rep 39:1–14
Kuhar DT, Henderson DK, Struble KA et al (2013) Updated US Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to human immunodeficiency virus and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 34:875–892
Bell DM (1997) Occupational risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in healthcare workers: an overview. Am J Med 102:9–15
Ippolito G, Puro V, De Carli G, Italian Study Group on Occupational Risk of HIV infection (1993) The risk of occupational human immunodeficiency virus infection in health care workers: Italian multicenter study. Arch Intern Med 153:1451–1458
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer-Verlag Italia
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Luzzati, R., Maurel, C. (2015). Transgender Identity and Sexually Transmitted Diseases Including HIV. In: Trombetta, C., Liguori, G., Bertolotto, M. (eds) Management of Gender Dysphoria. Springer, Milano. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-88-470-5696-1_39
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-88-470-5696-1_39
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Milano
Print ISBN: 978-88-470-5695-4
Online ISBN: 978-88-470-5696-1
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)