Abstract
This chapter is an overview of the South Asian diaspora in the UK and its cultural expression in theatre, with particular attention to women’s artistic productions. After a short introduction on South Asian diaspora and reflections on term choices, the chapter focuses on the UK, analysing the evolution of South Asian presence in theatre from its origins in the nineteenth century, through World War II, theatre in original language, and urban theatre of the 1970s and 1980s to the 1990s and also with attention to the history of the Arts Council Founding System and its policy. Then, the chapter examines South Asian women experiencing diaspora through the production of the Kali Theatre Company from 1990 to 2003. The Kali Theatre Company is a group founded in 1990 in London by the writer Rukhsana Ahmad and the actress Rita Wolf, whose aim is to support South Asian women’s presence in British theatre, both as actresses and as playwrights. The chapter moves from a historical point of view to sociological aspects of diaspora, through the words of the interviewed women, trying to make emerge experiences that have been obliterated by history and analysis for many years, and still now are often forgotten and left at the margin. South Asian women in the UK suffer a double alterity, being women and South Asian, which increases and emerge mostly in the artistic field. In the meanwhile, they are challenging the male dualistic system of ‘centre/periphery’ because women collocate themselves in the hic et nunc (‘here and now’), meaning that in the diaspora context, they are writing and acting in the ‘centre’, in the reality, they live every day.
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Notes
- 1.
Anthropologists and interculturalists did not ignore post-colonial theatre, but they usually tended to analyse similarities with all the other cultures instead of appreciating the most significant experiences, falling sometimes in neocolonial appropriation attitudes (Gilbert and Tompkins 1996, pp. 9–10).
- 2.
- 3.
Gabriele Griffin underlines how, nonetheless, ‘Some Black and Asian British female performers’ work has thus found itself the object of a certain [albeit limited] amount of attention because placing that performance work into lines of continuity which connect it with ‘tribal culture’ and ‘primitive societies’ continues to embed that work in post-colonial tradition which maintains those visibly different in a by now imaginary space of colonial otherness, part of the empire we’d still love to have’ (Griffin November 2003, p. 4).
- 4.
Avtar Brah theorises the ‘diaspora space’ that is the place where ‘multiple subject positions are juxtaposed, contested, proclaimed or disavowed’ (Brah 1996, p. 208). This theory constitutes a break point with post-colonial positions which operate in standardised and binary terms.
- 5.
‘The conscious and unconscious oppression of the indigenous personality and culture by a supposedly superior racial or cultural world’ (Ashcroft et al. 1995, p. 9).
- 6.
The author studies women playwrights such as Tanika Gupta, Winsome Pinnock, Maya Chowdhry, Amrit Wilson and Rukhsana Ahmad, too.
- 7.
Gabriele Griffin underlines this difference on her book: ‘… the work itself is produced by writers who do not necessarily view themselves as ‘other’ within Britain and who are now claiming their place at the table of British high culture. Their point of reference - in theatrical terms – are thus not the rituals, performances, or theatre works that are prevalent in the West Indies, parts of Africa, India, or Pakistan, but those of contemporary British theatre. These playwrights’ work does not, in other words, readily fit the categories of postcolonial, intercultural, or world theatre as these are currently understood, but should be viewed as part of British theatre now’ (Griffin 2003b, p. 9).
- 8.
The interviews were carried out in three successive stays in London between June and November 2003 and have been catalogued in tapes of 90 min each, numbered from 1 to 12 in chronological order.
- 9.
For a deep and broad analysis of the South Asian diaspora, see Jayaram (1998).
- 10.
Laxmi Narayan offers an interesting study on Indian diaspora from a demographic perspective from early movements of the tenth century to nowadays, analysing every different South Asian community in every welcome State (Narayan 1995).
- 11.
With the abolition of slavery and the slave trade in the British, French and Dutch colonies (respectively in 1833, 1846 and 1873), the plantations of sugar, coffee, rubber, tea, cocoa and rice of the colonies needed new labor force. The British colonialists invented, therefore, a method, called the indenture system, through which they recruited – by force and deception – workers from India and China. This type of system was also defined by Hugh Tinker as a form of masked slavery (Tinker 1974). The indenture was an employment contract lasting from 3 to 5 years and gave the guarantee of a modest wage, free food and lodging. At the end of the contract, the worker was free to choose whether to continue to work in the plantation to which he had been assigned, or find another place in the colony. Only after 10 years, he could choose whether to stay or return to the motherland. Most of the workers recruited were men under the age of 30, in most cases coming from the North-East and North-West of British India. During this period about 1.5 million people emigrated. Despite the many struggles for freedom raising on in India, this practice continued for about a century, until 1920 (legally until 1917).
- 12.
The kangani system (or maistry system) was a system of recruiting typical in the plantations of Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Burma. ‘Kangani’ were sailors hired by the owners of the plantations to recruit workers in the homeland and to bring them in the colonies. Unlike the indenture system, workers were much more free and had no contract nor a fixed period of compulsory service. Since the colonies that were receiving workers through the kangani system were close to the motherland, many of them returned there at the end of the working period. This recruitment system was formally abolished in 1936.
- 13.
Naseem Khan has been a fundamental figure in Black theatre. In the 1960s, she founded The Hustler, one of the first papers of the Black community. She also wrote for The New Statesman, The Guardian, and Time Out (as ‘Theatre Editor’), dealing with racial policies and reviews of ethnic minorities plays. In 1976, she founded the MAAS (Minorities Arts Advisory Service), a lobby for all immigrant artists. From 1996, she has been Senior Policy Advisor for the Arts Council, and in 1999 she received an OBE for her work for minorities.
- 14.
A Subject Peoples’ Conference was held in 1945 in London. This conference was a preliminary meeting for the development of a permanent organisation for the coordination of the colonial struggle. This was a key point because participants started to understand the importance of struggling together. In fact, many representatives from India, Burma, Ceylon, Malaysia, Africa and other European colonies took part in this conference.
- 15.
The first Pan-African Conference was organised in 1909. Ten years later, it was followed by the first Pan-African Congress in Paris organised by W.E.B. Du Bois, an African-American journalist, to discuss the situation in colonial Africa. It followed the Pan-African Congresses of 1921, 1923 and 1927 organised in various European cities and New York. The Fifth Pan-African Congress, held in Manchester in 1945, marked a significant change because it broadened the claims of independence of the colonial subject to the European powers. During the congress, organisers also discussed human rights and equal economic and legal treatment.
- 16.
Some of them were 7:84, Joint Stock Company, Women’s Street Theatre Company, Women’s Company, Women’s Theatre Group and Monstrous Regiment.
- 17.
For a detailed biography and bibliography, cf. http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/profile.cfm?fellow=5&menu=6.
- 18.
For a detailed biography and bibliography, cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita_Wolf.
- 19.
Artistic director of Women’s Theatre Group.
- 20.
Quote from Rukhsana Ahmad interview, November 15, 2003, tape n. 9.
- 21.
Crin Claxton is a lighting designer with many years of experience. At that time she had already collaborated with many companies such as Hairy Marys, Red Rag, Mán Melá, Sensible Footwear, Mehtab, Character Ladies, Tammy Whynot and Oval House.
- 22.
More Dramatic Encounters has been presented on three evenings from October 30 to November 2 at the Oval House Theatre (London). The six texts presented were I Won’t Let You Go by Sangeeta Datta, Relatively Sane by Parm Kaur, Today Shakuntala by Mou Banerjee, Daag Daag Ujaala by Shahida Omarshah, The Ecstasy by Anu Kumar (which later became part of Kali Theatre Company production in Love Comes in at the Window) and Mangoes and Sacher Torte by Bettina Gracias.
- 23.
Interview with Rukhsana Ahmad, September 24, 2003, tape n. 2/A.
- 24.
Helena Uren became director, thanks to a grant from the Arts Council. She was Artistic Director of Alarmist Theatre until 1991. She directed Fossil Woman, The Gatekeeper’s Wife, The School of Night and The Bedbug. Other credits include Rehearsing Brief Encounter (Oxford Touring Theatre Company), The Periodic Table (Harlow Playhouse), Game (Brighton Theatre Events), Skin into Rainbows (Theatre Centre), Alice (Chesterfield Pomegranate), One of the Road (Mercury Theatre, Colchester) and Best of Brief (Lyric Theatre). Regarding the Kali Theatre Company, she has been the Director of the production Love Comes in at the Window (1999), River of Fire and a couple of pieces of Meri Kahani in 2000, as well as a member of the Board of Directors up to 2005.
- 25.
Interview with Binita Walia, September 25, 2003, tape n. 2/A-B.
- 26.
cf. ‘History of Arts Council England’, Arts Council England, http://www.artscouncil.org.uk/who-we-are/history-arts-council/.
- 27.
Arts Council of England (ACE), Arts Council of Wales (ACW), Scottish Arts Council (SAC) and Arts Council of Northern Ireland (ACNI).
- 28.
Binita Walia, September 25, 2003, tape n. 2/A-B.
- 29.
Norma Dixit, November 12, 2003, tapes n. 5/A-B, 6/A-B.
- 30.
Interviews
References
Primary Sources Interviews
Janet Steel, June 23, 2003, tape n. 1
Rukhsana Ahmad, September 24, 2003, tape n. 2/A
Binita Walia, September 25, 2003, tape n. 2/A-B
Janet Steel, June 25, 2003, tape n. 2/B
Penny Gold, June 25, 2003, tapes n. 2/B, 3/A
Manjinder Virk, November 11, 2003, tape n. 4
Azma Khan, November 12, 2003, tape n. 5/A
Norma Dixit, November 12, 2003, tapes n. 5/A-B, 6/A-B
Harprit Sekhon, November 12, 2003, cassette n. 6/B, 7
Shobu Kapoor, November 13, 2003, tape n. 8
Rukhsana Ahmad, November 15, 2003, tape n. 9
Saumya Balsari, November 17, 2003, tapes n. 10, 11/A
Flyers
Flyer of Song for a Sanctuary, 1991
Programme of Song for a Sanctuary, 1991
Flyers of Stage, Craft & Writers, 1994
Flyer of Natural World, 1997
Programme of Natural World, 1997
Flyer of More Dramatic Encounters, October 30-31/November-2, 1997
Flyer of Kali Theatre Company, 1999
Flyer of Love Comes in at the Window, 1999
Programme of Love Comes in at the Window, 1999
Flyer of Meri Kahani, 2000
Flyer of River on Fire, 2001
Programme of River on Fire, 2001
Flyer of Meri Kahani – Meri Duniya, 2002
Flyer of Kali Shorts, March 14–15 2002
Programme of Kali Shorts, March 14–15, 2002
Flyer of Singh Tangos, 2002
Programme of Singh Tangos, 2002
Programme of Kali Futures, October 10–24, 2002
Flyer of Sock’em with Honey, 2003
Programme of Sock’em with Honey, 2003
Programme of Kali Shorts, June 11–12, 2003
Programme of Kali Futures, September 23–24, 2003
Programme of Calcutta Kosher, 2004
Shows Viewed/Attended
Kali Futures, London: Soho Theatre, September, 23rd–24th 2003
Meri Kahani – Meri Duniya, VHS, Copyrights: Kali Theatre Company e Southall Black Sisters, 2002
Singh Tangos, VHS, Copyrights: Kali Theatre Company, 2002
Sock’em with Honey, VHS, Copyrights: Kali Theatre Company, 2003
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Bhat, C., Narayan, L. K., & Sahoo, S. (2002, December 21–27). Indian diaspora: A brief overview. Employment News, XXVI, 38, pp. 1, 3–4.
Brah, A. (1996). Cartographies of diaspora: Contesting identities. London: Routledge.
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Joseph, G. (1998). Bodies outside the state: Black British women playwrights and the limits of citizenship. In P. Peggy & L. Jill (Eds.), The ends of performance (pp. 197–213). New York: New York University Press.
Lo, J., & Gilbert, H. (2002). Toward a topography of cross-cultural theatre Praxis. The Drama Review, XLVI(3 fall), 35.
Narayan, K. L. (1995). Indian diaspora: A demographic perspective. Occasional paper no. 3, Centre for the Study of Indian Diaspora. Hyderabad: University of Hyderabad.
Phillips, T. (2004). ‘Britishness and the ‘M’ word’, connections (spring 2004): pp. 12–13.
Ponnuswami, M. (2000). Small Island people: Black British women playwrights. In A. Elaine & R. Janelle (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to modern British women playwrights (pp. 217–234). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Books/Articles/Reviews
Ahmad, R. (2001). ‘So why Do We Collude in Labelling Ourselves?’ Eclipse report: Developing strategies to combat racism in theatre. London: ACE e Theatrical Management Association. http://www.artscouncil.org.uk/publication_archive/eclipse-developing-strategies-to-combat-racism-in-theatre/
Arts Council England. (n.d.). History of arts council England. http://www.artscouncil.org.uk/who-we-are/history-arts-council/
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Colombo, A.S. (2014). The Empire Writes from Within: The Kali Theatre Company, a Case Study. In: Sahoo, S., Pattanaik, B. (eds) Global Diasporas and Development. Springer, New Delhi. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-1047-4_22
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