Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Anatomical Foundation for Multidisciplinary Studies of Animal Limb Function: Examples from Dinosaur and Elephant Limb Imaging Studies

  • Chapter
Book cover Anatomical Imaging

Abstract

What makes so many animals, living and extinct, so popular and distinct is anatomy; it is what leaps out at a viewer first whether they observe a museum’s mounted Tyrannosaurus skeleton or an elephant placidly browsing on the savannah. Anatomy alone can make an animal fascinating — so many animals are so physically unlike human observers, yet what do these anatomical differences mean for the lives of animals?

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Alexander R McN (1989) Dynamics of dinosaurs and other extinct giants. Columbia University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander R McN, Ker RF (1990) The architecture of leg muscles. In: Winters JM, Woo SL-Y (eds) Multiple muscle systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp 568–577

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander R McN, Jayes AS, Maloiy GMO, Wathuta EM (1981) Allometry of the leg muscles of mammals. J Zool 194:539–552

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander R McN, Maloiy GMO, Hunter B, Jayes AS, Nturibi J (1979) Mechanical stresses in fast locomotion of buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and elephant (Loxodonta africana), J Zool 189:135–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • An KN, Takahashi K, Harrigan TP, Chao EY (1984) Determination of muscle orientations and moment arms. J Biomech Eng 106:280–283

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biewener AA (1989) Sealing body support in mammals: limb posture and muscle mechanics. Science 245:45–48

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biewener AA (1990) Biomechanics of mammalian terrestrial locomotion. Science 250:1097–1103

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blair P (1710) Osteographica elephantina. Phil Trans Roy Soc Lond 27:51–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrano MT (1998) Locomotion in non-avian dinosaurs: integrating data from hindlimb kinematics, in vivo strains, and bone morphology. Paleobiology 24:450–469l

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrano MT, Hutchinson JR (2002) Pelvie and hindlimb musculature of Tyrannosaurus rex (Dinosauria: Theropoda). J Morph 252:207–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charig A (1972) The evolution of the archosaur pelvis and hindlimb: an explanation in functional terms. In: Joysey KA, Kemp TS (eds) Studies in vertebrate evolution. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, UK, pp 121–155

    Google Scholar 

  • Coombs WP (1978) Theoretical aspects of cursorial adaptations in dinosaurs. Q Rev Biol 53:393–415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Csuti BA, Sargent EL, Bechert US (eds) (2001) The elephant’s foot: care and prevention of foot conditions in captive Asian and African elephants. Iowa State Press, Ames

    Google Scholar 

  • Delp SL, Hess WE, Hungerford DS, Jones LC (1999) Variation of rotation moment arms with hip flexion. J Biomech 32:493–501

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eales NB (1928) The anatomy of a foetal African Elephant, Elephas africanus (Loxodonta africana), Part II. The body muscles. Trans Roy Soc Edinburgh 55:609–642

    Google Scholar 

  • Eales NB (1929) The anatomy of a foetal African Elephant, Elephas africanus (Loxodonta africana), Part III. The contents of the thorax and abdomen, and the skeleton. Trans Roy Soc Edinburgh 56:203–246

    Google Scholar 

  • Farlow JO, Gatesy SM, Holtz TR Jr, Hutchinson JR, Robinson JM (2000) Theropod locomotion. Am Zool 40:640–663

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gambaryan PP (1974) How mammals run. John Wiley & Sons, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gatesy SM (1990) Caudofemoral musculature and the evolution of theropod locomotion. Paleobiol 16:170–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier JA (1986) Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds. In: Padian K (ed.) The origin of birds and the evolution of flight. Mem Calif Acad Sci 8:1–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR (2001a) The evolution of pelvic osteology and soft tissues on the line to extant birds (Neornithes). Zool J Linn Soc 131:123–168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR (2001b) The evolution of femoral osteology and soft tissues on the line to extant birds (Neornithes), Zool J Linn Soc 131:169–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR (2002) The evolution of hindlimb tendons and museles on the line to crown-group birds. Comp Biochem Physiol A 133:1051–1086

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR (2004a) Biomechanical modeling and sensitivity analysis of bipedal running ability. I. Extant taxa, J Morph 262:421–440

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR (2004b) Biomechanical modeling and sensivity analysis of bipedal running ability. II. Extinct taxa. J Morph 262:441–461

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR, Garcia M (2002) Tyrannosaurus was not a fast runner. Nature 415:1018–1021

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR, Gatesy SM (2000) Adductors, abductors, and the evolution of archosaur locomotion. Paleobiology 26:734–751

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR, Famini D, Lair R, Kram R (2003) Biomechanics: are fast-moving elephants really running? Nature 422:493–494

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR, Anderson FC, Blemker S, Delp SL (2005) Analysis of hindlimb muscle moment arms in Tyrannosaurus rex using a three-dimensional musculoskeletal computer model. Paleobiology 31:676–701

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JR, Schwerda D, Famini D, Dale RHI, Fischer M, Kram R (2006) The locomotor kinematics of African and Asian elephants: changes with speed and size. J Exp Biol 209:3812–3827

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob F (1977) Evolution and tinkering. Science 196: 1161–1196

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koehl MAR (1996) When does morphology matter? Ann Rev Ecol Syst 27:501–542

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lauder GV (1995) On the inference of function from structure. In: Thomason JJ (ed.) Functional morphology in vertebrate paleontology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Mariappa D (1986) Anatomy and histology of the Indian elephant. Indira Publishing House, Oak Park, MI

    Google Scholar 

  • Neuville H (1935) Sur quelques caractères anatomiques du pied des éléphants. Arch Mus Nat ďHist Natur Paris 6e Série 13:111–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul GS (1998) Limb design, function and running performance in ostrich-mimics and tyrannosaurs. Gaia 15:257–270

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne RC, Veenman P, Wilson AM (2004) The role of the extrinsic thoracic limb muscles in equine locomotion. J Anat 206:193–204

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Payne RC, Hutchinson JR, Robilliard JJ, Smith NC, Wilson AM (2005) Functional specialization of pelvic limb anatomy in horses (Equus caballus). J Anat 206:557–574

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perle A (1985) Comparative myology of the pelvic-femoral region in the bipedal dinosaurs. Paleontol J 19:105–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramsay EC, Henry RW (2001) Anatomy of the elephant foot. In: Csuti BA, Sargent EL, Bechert US (eds) (2001) The Elephant’s Foot: Care and Prevention of Foot Conditions in Captive Asian and African Elephants. Ames: Iowa State Press, pp 9–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Romer AS (1927) The pelvic musculature of ornithischian dinosaurs. Acta Zoologica 8:225–275

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roth VL (1984) How elephants grow: heterochrony and the calibration of developmental stages in some living and fossil species. J Vert Paleont 4:126–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Sereno PC (1999) The evolution of dinosaurs. Science 284:2137–2147

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shoshani J (1998) Understanding proboseidean evolution: a formidable task. Trends Ecol Evol 13:480–487

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shoshani J, Tassy P (eds) (1996) The Proboscidea: evolution and palaeoecology of elephants and their relatives. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Sikes SK (1971) The natural history of the African elephant, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Smuts MMS, Bezuidenhout AJ (1993) Osteology of the thoracic limb of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Onterstepoort J Vet Res 60:1–14

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smuts MMS, Bezuidenhout AJ (1994) Osteology of the pelvic limb of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), Onterstepoort J Vet Res 61:51–66

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas MG, Hagelberg E, Jones HB, Yang Z, Lister AM (2000) Molecular and morphological evidence on the phylogeny of the Elephantidae. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 267:2493–2500

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker AD (1977) Evolution of the pelvis in birds and dinosaurs. In: Andrews SM, Miles RS, Walker AD (eds) Problems in vertebrate evolution, Linn Soc Symp Ser 4. Academic Press, London, pp 319–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Weissengruber GE, Egger GF, Hutchinson JR, Groenewald HB, Elsässer L, Famini D, Forstenpointner G (2006) The structure of the cushions in the feet of African Elephants (Loxodonta africana). J Anat 209:781–792

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Witmer LM (1995) The extant phylogenetic bracket and the importance of reconstructing soft tissues in fossils. In: Thomason JJ (ed.) Functional morphology in vertebrate paleontology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 19–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu X, Zhou Z, Wang X, Kuang X, Zhang F, Du X (2003) Four-winged dinosaurs from China. Nature 6921:335–340

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zajac FE (1989) Muscle and tendon: properties, models, scaling, and application to biomechanics and motor control. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 17:359–411

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Basic Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK

    John R. Hutchinson & Charlotte Miller

  2. Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW), Berlin, Germany

    Guido Fritsch & Thomas Hildebrandt

Authors
  1. John R. Hutchinson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Charlotte Miller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Guido Fritsch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Thomas Hildebrandt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. The University Museum, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan

    Hideki Endo Ph.D. (Professor) (Professor)

  2. Research Group: Reproduction Management, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW), Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315, Berlin, Germany

    Roland Frey Ph.D.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Springer

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hutchinson, J.R., Miller, C., Fritsch, G., Hildebrandt, T. (2008). The Anatomical Foundation for Multidisciplinary Studies of Animal Limb Function: Examples from Dinosaur and Elephant Limb Imaging Studies. In: Endo, H., Frey, R. (eds) Anatomical Imaging. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-76933-0_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation