Abstract
Atopic dermatitis is a pruritic inflammatory skin disease that is greatly increasing worldwide. As the disease can be divided into remission (acute) and nonremission (chronic) groups, atopic dermatitis is an appropriate model for exploration of the mechanisms underlying the chronicity of inflammation. The nonremission group is characterised by the subsequent complication with systemic allergic sequelae referred to as ‘atopic march’. A central pathophysiology of atopic march has been revealed to be percutaneous sensitisation to environmental antigens, which results from memory Th2 cell induction. Characteristic pathophysiology of atopic dermatitis, including scratching, Filaggrin-null mutation, epidermal production of proinflammatory cytokines, such as Tslp and Il33, and induction of type2 innate lymphoid cells have been revealed to contribute to the maintenance and increment of memory Th2 cells, leading to the nonremission course of the disease. Recent rapid increment of the prevalence suggests that environmental factors make a significant contribution to the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. A number of recent studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between the prevalence of atopic dermatitis and air pollution levels. In addition, several studies also demonstrated that air pollutants contribute to the induction of atopic march and memory T-cell formation. These air pollutants appear to activate stress-responsive transcription factors, AhR and Nrf2, and these transcription factors elicit a response associated with inflammation. However, the exact mechanisms underlying the air- pollutant–induced chronicity of atopic dermatitis remain to be elucidated.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Angelova-Fischer I, Fernandez IM, Donnadieu MH et al (2010) Injury to the stratum corneum induces in vivo expression of human thymic stromal lymphopoietin in the epidermis. J Invest Dermatol 130:2505–2507. doi:10.1038/jid.2010.143
Ashcroft DM, Dimmock P, Garside R et al (2005) Efficacy and tolerability of topical pimecrolimus and tacrolimus in the treatment of atopic dermatitis: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 330:516. doi:10.1136/bmj.38376.439653.D3
Barker JNWN, Palmer CN a, Zhao Y et al (2007) Null mutations in the filaggrin gene (FLG) determine major susceptibility to early-onset atopic dermatitis that persists into adulthood. J Invest Dermatol 127:564–567. doi:10.1038/sj.jid.5700587
Barlow JL, Bellosi A, Hardman CS et al (2012) Innate IL-13-producing nuocytes arise during allergic lung inflammation and contribute to airways hyperreactivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 129:1367–1370. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2011.09.041
Bautista DM, Wilson SR, Hoon M a (2014) Why we scratch an itch: the molecules, cells and circuits of itch. Nat Neurosci 17:175–182
Beattie PE, Lewis-Jones MS (2006) A comparative study of impairment of quality of life in children with skin disease and children with other chronic childhood diseases. Br J Dermatol 155:145–151. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2006.07185.x
Besnard A-G, Togbe D, Guillou N et al (2011) IL-33-activated dendritic cells are critical for allergic airway inflammation. Eur J Immunol 41:1675–1686. doi:10.1002/eji.201041033
Bieber T (2008) Atopic dermatitis. N Engl J Med 358:1483–1494. doi:10.1056/NEJMra074081
Biedermann T, Schwärzler C, Lametschwandtner G et al (2002) Targeting CLA/E-selectin interactions prevents CCR4-mediated recruitment of human Th2 memory cells to human skin in vivo. Eur J Immunol 32:3171–3180. doi:10.1002/1521-4141(200211)32:11<3171::AID-IMMU3171>3.0.CO;2-4
Biedermann T, Lametschwandtner G, Tangemann K et al (2006) IL-12 instructs skin homing of human Th2 cells. J Immunol 177:3763–3770. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.177.6.3763
Bleck B, Tse DB, Curotto de Lafaille MA et al (2008) Diesel exhaust particle-exposed human bronchial epithelial cells induce dendritic cell maturation and polarization via thymic stromal lymphopoietin. J Clin Immunol 28:147–156. doi:10.1007/s10875-007-9149-0
Bleck B, Tse DB, Gordon T et al (2010) Diesel exhaust particle-treated human bronchial epithelial cells upregulate Jagged-1 and OX40 ligand in myeloid dendritic cells via thymic stromal lymphopoietin. J Immunol 185:6636–6645. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1000719
Brandt EB, Kovacic MB, Lee GB et al (2013) Diesel exhaust particle induction of IL-17A contributes to severe asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 132:1194–1204.e2. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2013.06.048
Brandt EB, Biagini Myers JM, Acciani TH et al (2015) Exposure to allergen and diesel exhaust particles potentiates secondary allergen-specific memory responses, promoting asthma susceptibility. J Allergy Clin Immunol 136:295. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2014.11.043
Brown SJ, Asai Y, Cordell HJ et al (2011) Loss-of-function variants in the filaggrin gene are a significant risk factor for peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 127:661–667. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2011.01.031
Burness CB, Deeks ED (2014) Dimethyl fumarate: a review of its use in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. CNS Drugs 28:373–387. doi:10.1007/s40263-014-0155-5
Bushar ND, Corbo E, Schmidt M et al (2010) Ablation of SLP-76 signaling after T cell priming generates memory CD4 T cells impaired in steady-state and cytokine-driven homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:827–831. doi:10.1073/pnas.0908126107
Campbell JJ, Haraldsen G, Pan J et al (1999) The chemokine receptor CCR4 in vascular recognition by cutaneous but not intestinal memory T cells. Nature 400:776–780. doi:10.1038/23495
Candi E, Schmidt R, Melino G (2005) The cornified envelope: a model of cell death in the skin. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 6:328–340. doi:10.1038/nrm1619
Chang Y-J, Kim HY, Albacker L a et al (2011) Innate lymphoid cells mediate influenza-induced airway hyper-reactivity independently of adaptive immunity. Nat Immunol 12:631–638. doi:10.1038/ni.2045
Clark R a, Chong BF, Mirchandani N et al (2006a) A novel method for the isolation of skin resident T cells from normal and diseased human skin. J Invest Dermatol 126:1059–1070. doi:10.1038/sj.jid.5700199
Clark RA, Chong B, Mirchandani N et al (2006b) The vast majority of CLA+ T cells are resident in normal skin. J Immunol 176:4431–4439. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.176.7.4431
Cookson W (2004) The immunogenetics of asthma and eczema: a new focus on the epithelium. Nat Rev Immunol 4:978–988. doi:10.1038/nri1500
Cosmi L, Annunziato F, Galli MIG et al (2000) CRTH2 is the most reliable marker for the detection of circulating human type 2 Th and type 2 T cytotoxic cells in health and disease. Eur J Immunol 30:2972–2979. doi:10.1002/1521-4141(200010)30:10<2972::AID-IMMU2972>3.0.CO;2-#
Coyle BAJ, Lloyd C, Tian J et al (1999) Crucial role of the interleukin 1 receptor family member T1/ ST2 in T helper cell type 2-mediated lung mucosal immune responses. J Exp Med 190: 895–902. doi:10.1084/jem.190.7.895
Croft M (2003) Co-stimulatory members of the TNFR family: keys to effective T-cell immunity? Nat Rev Immunol 3:609–620. doi:10.1038/nri1148
Demehri S, Morimoto M, Holtzman MJ, Kopan R (2009) Skin-derived TSLP triggers progression from epidermal-barrier defects to asthma. PLoS Biol 7:e1000067. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000067
Duarte JH, Di Meglio P, Hirota K et al (2013) Differential influences of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor on Th17 mediated responses in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One 8:e79819. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079819
Dyring-Andersen B, Geisler C, Agerbeck C et al (2014) Increased number and frequency of group 3 innate lymphoid cells in nonlesional psoriatic skin. Br J Dermatol 170:609–616. doi:10.1111/bjd.12658
El Ali Z, Gerbeix C, Hemon P et al (2013) Allergic skin inflammation induced by chemical sensitizers is controlled by the transcription factor Nrf2. Toxicol Sci 134:39–48. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kft084
Endo Y, Hirahara K, Iinuma T et al (2015) The interleukin-33-p38 kinase axis confers memory T helper 2 cell pathogenicity in the airway. Immunity 42:294–308. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2015.01.016
Fallon PG, Sasaki T, Sandilands A et al (2009) A homozygous frameshift mutation in the mouse Flg gene facilitates enhanced percutaneous allergen priming. Nat Genet 41:602–608. doi:10.1038/ng.358
Filipiak-Pittroff B, Schnopp C, Berdel D et al (2011) Predictive value of food sensitization and filaggrin mutations in children with eczema. J Allergy Clin Immunol 128:1235–1241.e5. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2011.09.014
Friling RS, Bensimon A, Tichauer Y, Daniel V (1990) Xenobiotic-inducible expression of murine glutathione S-transferase Ya subunit gene is controlled by an electrophile-responsive element. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87:6258–6262
Fujii-Kuriyama Y, Mimura J (2005) Molecular mechanisms of AhR functions in the regulation of cytochrome P450 genes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 338:311–317. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.08.162
Fukuoka A, Futatsugi-Yumikura S, Takahashi S et al (2013) Identification of a novel type 2 innate immunocyte with the ability to enhance IgE production. Int Immunol 25:373–382. doi:10.1093/intimm/dxs160
Furusawa J, Moro K, Motomura Y et al (2013) Critical role of p38 and GATA3 in natural helper cell function. J Immunol 191:1818–1826. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1300379
Gasana J, Dillikar D, Mendy A et al (2012) Motor vehicle air pollution and asthma in children: a meta-analysis. Environ Res 117:36–45. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2012.05.001
Gold R, Kappos L, Arnold DL et al (2012) Placebo-controlled phase 3 study of oral BG-12 for relapsing multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 367:1098–1107. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1114287
Halim TYF, Steer CA, Mathä L et al (2014) Group 2 innate lymphoid cells are critical for the initiation of adaptive T helper 2 cell-mediated allergic lung inflammation. Immunity 40:425–435. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2014.01.011
Halim TYF, Hwang YY, Scanlon ST et al (2015) Group 2 innate lymphoid cells license dendritic cells to potentiate memory TH2 cell responses. Nat Immunol 17:2–11. doi:10.1038/ni.3294
Han H, Xu W, Headley MB et al (2012) Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP)-mediated dermal inflammation aggravates experimental asthma. Mucosal Immunol 5:342–351. doi:10.1038/mi.2012.14
Harada M, Hirota T, Jodo AI et al (2011) Thymic stromal lymphopoietin gene promoter polymorphisms are associated with susceptibility to bronchial asthma. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 44:787–793. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2009-0418OC
Harvey CJ, Thimmulappa RK, Sethi S et al (2011) Targeting Nrf2 signaling improves bacterial clearance by alveolar macrophages in patients with COPD and in a mouse model. Sci Transl Med 3:78ra32. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3002042
He R, Oyoshi MK, Wang JYT et al (2010) The prostaglandin D2 receptor CRTH2 is important for allergic skin inflammation after epicutaneous antigen challenge. J Allergy Clin Immunol 126:784–790. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2010.07.006
Hirotsu Y, Katsuoka F, Funayama R et al (2012) Nrf2-MafG heterodimers contribute globally to antioxidant and metabolic networks. Nucleic Acids Res 40:10228–10239. doi:10.1093/nar/gks827
Hogan MB, Peele K, Wilson NW (2012) Skin barrier function and its importance at the start of the atopic march. J Allergy 2012:901940. doi:10.1155/2012/901940
Homann D, Teyton L, Oldstone MB (2001) Differential regulation of antiviral T-cell immunity results in stable CD8+ but declining CD4+ T-cell memory. Nat Med 7:913–919. doi:10.1038/90950
Homey B, Steinhoff M, Ruzicka T, Leung DYM (2006) Cytokines and chemokines orchestrate atopic skin inflammation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 118:178–189. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.03.047
Hosogi M, Schmelz M, Miyachi Y, Ikoma A (2006) Bradykinin is a potent pruritogen in atopic dermatitis: a switch from pain to itch. Pain 126:16–23. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.06.003
Hunninghake GM, Soto-Quirós ME, Avila L et al (2010) TSLP polymorphisms are associated with asthma in a sex-specific fashion. Allergy 65:1566–1575. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2010.02415.x
Iizuka T, Ishii Y, Itoh K et al (2005) Nrf2-deficient mice are highly susceptible to cigarette smoke-induced emphysema. Genes Cells 10:1113–1125. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2443.2005.00905.x
Illi S, von Mutius E, Lau S et al (2004) The natural course of atopic dermatitis from birth to age 7 years and the association with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 113:925–931. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2004.01.778
Imai Y, Yasuda K, Sakaguchi Y et al (2013) Skin-specific expression of IL-33 activates group 2 innate lymphoid cells and elicits atopic dermatitis-like inflammation in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:13921–13926. doi:10.1073/pnas.1307321110
Ishii T, Itoh K, Ruiz E et al (2004) Role of Nrf2 in the regulation of CD36 and stress protein expression in murine macrophages: activation by oxidatively modified LDL and 4-hydroxynonenal. Circ Res 94:609–616. doi:10.1161/01.RES.0000119171.44657.45
Ishii Y, Itoh K, Morishima Y et al (2005) Transcription factor Nrf2 plays a pivotal role in protection against elastase-induced pulmonary inflammation and emphysema. J Immunol 175:6968–6975
Ito T, Wang Y-H, Duramad O et al (2005) TSLP-activated dendritic cells induce an inflammatory T helper type 2 cell response through OX40 ligand. J Exp Med 202:1213–1223. doi:10.1084/jem.20051135
Itoh K, Wakabayashi N, Katoh Y et al (1999) Keap1 represses nuclear activation of antioxidant responsive elements by Nrf2 through binding to the amino-terminal Neh2 domain. Genes Dev 13:76–86. doi:10.1101/gad.13.1.76
Itoh K, Mochizuki M, Ishii Y et al (2004) Transcription factor Nrf2 regulates inflammation by mediating the effect of 15-deoxy-delta(12,14)-prostaglandin j(2). Mol Cell Biol 24:36–45. doi:10.1128/MCB.24.1.36
Iwasaki M, Nagata K, Takano S et al (2002) Association of a new-type prostaglandin D2 receptor CRTH2 with circulating T helper 2 cells in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 119:609–616. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.01862.x
Kabata H, Moro K, Fukunaga K et al (2013) Thymic stromal lymphopoietin induces corticosteroid resistance in natural helper cells during airway inflammation. Nat Commun 4:2675. doi:10.1038/ncomms3675
Kakinuma T, Nakamura K, Wakugawa M et al (2001) Thymus and activation-regulated chemokine in atopic dermatitis: serum thymus and activation-regulated chemokine level is closely related with disease activity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 107:535–541. doi:10.1067/mai.2001.113237
Kakinuma T, Nakamura K, Wakugawa M et al (2002) Serum macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) levels are closely related with the disease activity of atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Immunol 127:270–273. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2249.2002.01727.x
Kaminski MM, Sauer SW, Klemke C-D et al (2010) Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species control T cell activation by regulating IL-2 and IL-4 expression: mechanism of ciprofloxacin-mediated immunosuppression. J Immunol 184:4827–4841. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0901662
Kassiotis G, Garcia S, Simpson E, Stockinger B (2002) Impairment of immunological memory in the absence of MHC despite survival of memory T cells. Nat Immunol 3:244–250. doi:10.1038/ni766
Kearley J, Buckland KF, Mathie SA, Lloyd CM (2009) Resolution of allergic inflammation and airway hyperreactivity is dependent upon disruption of the T1/ST2-IL-33 pathway. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 179:772–781. doi:10.1164/rccm.200805-666OC
Kim G-D, Kim T-H, Jang A-H et al (2011a) α-lipoic acid suppresses the development of DNFB-induced atopic dermatitis-like symptoms in NC/Nga mice. Exp Dermatol 20:97–101. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0625.2010.01165.x
Kim J, Natarajan S, Vaickus LJ et al (2011b) Diesel exhaust particulates exacerbate asthma-like inflammation by increasing CXC chemokines. Am J Pathol 179:2730–2739. doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.08.008
Kim BS, Siracusa MC, Saenz S a et al (2013) TSLP elicits IL-33-independent innate lymphoid cell responses to promote skin inflammation. Sci Transl Med 5:170ra16. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3005374
Kobayashi E, Suzuki T, Yamamoto M (2013) Roles nrf2 plays in myeloid cells and related disorders. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2013:529219. doi:10.1155/2013/529219
Kondrack RM, Harbertson J, Tan JT et al (2003) Interleukin 7 regulates the survival and generation of memory CD4 cells. J Exp Med 198:1797–1806. doi:10.1084/jem.20030735
Kong X, Thimmulappa R, Kombairaju P, Biswal S (2010) NADPH oxidase-dependent reactive oxygen species mediate amplified TLR4 signaling and sepsis-induced mortality in Nrf2-deficient mice. J Immunol 185:569–577. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0902315
Kupper TS, Fuhlbrigge RC (2004) Immune surveillance in the skin: mechanisms and clinical consequences. Nat Rev Immunol 4:211–222. doi:10.1038/nri1310
Kurowska-Stolarska M, Kewin P, Murphy G et al (2008) IL-33 induces antigen-specific IL-5+ T cells and promotes allergic-induced airway inflammation independent of IL-4. J Immunol 181:4780–4790. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.181.7.4780
Kurowska-Stolarska M, Stolarski B, Kewin P et al (2009) IL-33 amplifies the polarization of alternatively activated macrophages that contribute to airway inflammation. J Immunol 183:6469–6477. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0901575
Kurtulus S, Tripathi P, Hildeman DA (2013) Protecting and rescuing the effectors: roles of differentiation and survival in the control of memory T cell development. Front Immunol 3:1–13. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2012.00404
Lee EB, Kim KW, Hong JY et al (2010) Increased serum thymic stromal lymphopoietin in children with atopic dermatitis. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 21:e457-60. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2009.00919.x
Lees JR, Farber DL (2010) Generation, persistence and plasticity of CD4 T-cell memories. Immunology 130:463–470. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2010.03288.x
Lenz DC, Kurz SK, Lemmens E et al (2004) IL-7 regulates basal homeostatic proliferation of antiviral CD4+T cell memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:9357–9362. doi:10.1073/pnas.0400640101
Leung DYM, Boguniewicz M, Howell MD et al (2004) New insights into atopic dermatitis. J Clin Invest 113:651–657. doi:10.1172/JCI21060
Leyva-Castillo JM, Hener P, Jiang H, Li M (2013) TSLP produced by keratinocytes promotes allergen sensitization through skin and thereby triggers atopic march in mice. J Invest Dermatol 133:154–163. doi:10.1038/jid.2012.239
Li M, Messaddeq N, Teletin M et al (2005) Retinoid X receptor ablation in adult mouse keratinocytes generates an atopic dermatitis triggered by thymic stromal lymphopoietin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:14795–14800. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507385102
Li YJ, Takizawa H, Azuma A et al (2010) Nrf2 is closely related to allergic airway inflammatory responses induced by low-dose diesel exhaust particles in mice. Clin Immunol 137:234–241. doi:10.1016/j.clim.2010.07.014
Li N, Wang M, Barajas B et al (2013) Nrf2 deficiency in dendritic cells enhances the adjuvant effect of ambient ultrafine particles on allergic sensitization. J Innate Immun 5:543–554. doi:10.1159/000347060
Liu Y-J, Soumelis V, Watanabe N et al (2007) TSLP: an epithelial cell cytokine that regulates T cell differentiation by conditioning dendritic cell maturation. Annu Rev Immunol 25:193–219. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.25.022106.141718
Liu X, Li M, Wu Y et al (2009) Anti-IL-33 antibody treatment inhibits airway inflammation in a murine model of allergic asthma. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 386:181–185. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.06.008
Locksley RM (2010) Asthma and allergic inflammation. Cell 140:777–783. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.03.004
Lowe AJ, Carlin JB, Bennett CM et al (2008) Do boys do the atopic march while girls dawdle? J Allergy Clin Immunol 121:1190–1195. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2008.01.034
Marenholz I, Kerscher T, Bauerfeind A et al (2009) An interaction between filaggrin mutations and early food sensitization improves the prediction of childhood asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 123:911–916. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.01.051
Margolis DJ, Kim B, Apter AJ et al (2014) Thymic stromal lymphopoietin variation, filaggrin loss of function, and the persistence of atopic dermatitis. JAMA Dermatol 150:254–259. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2013.7954
McConnell R, Berhane K, Yao L et al (2006) Traffic, susceptibility, and childhood asthma. Environ Health Perspect 114:766–772. doi:10.1289/ehp.8594
McKenzie ANJ, Spits H, Eberl G (2014) Innate lymphoid cells in inflammation and immunity. Immunity 41:366–374. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2014.09.006
Mirchandani AS, Besnard A-G, Yip E et al (2014) Type 2 innate lymphoid cells drive CD4+ Th2 cell responses. J Immunol 192:2442–2448. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1300974
Mjösberg JM, Trifari S, Crellin NK et al (2011) Human IL-25- and IL-33-responsive type 2 innate lymphoid cells are defined by expression of CRTH2 and CD161. Nat Immunol 12:1055–1062. doi:10.1038/ni.2104
Mjösberg J, Bernink J, Golebski K et al (2012) The transcription factor GATA3 is essential for the function of human type 2 innate lymphoid cells. Immunity 37:649–659. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2012.08.015
Mojtabavi N, Dekan G, Stingl G, Epstein MM (2002) Long-lived Th2 memory in experimental allergic asthma. J Immunol 169:4788–4796. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.169.9.4788
Moniaga CS, Egawa G, Kawasaki H et al (2010) Flaky tail mouse denotes human atopic dermatitis in the steady state and by topical application with dermatophagoides pteronyssinus extract. Am J Pathol 176:2385–2393. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2010.090957
Monticelli LA, Sonnenberg GF, Abt MC et al (2011) Innate lymphoid cells promote lung-tissue homeostasis after infection with influenza virus. Nat Immunol 12:1045–1054. doi:10.1038/ni.2131
Morgenstern V, Zutavern A, Cyrys J et al (2008) Atopic diseases, allergic sensitization, and exposure to traffic-related air pollution in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 177:1331–1337. doi:10.1164/rccm.200701-036OC
Moulton VR, Bushar ND, Leeser DB et al (2006) Divergent generation of heterogeneous memory CD4 T cells. J Immunol 177:869–876. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.177.2.869
Murakami-satsutani N, Ito T, Nakanishi T et al (2014) IL-33 promotes the induction and maintenance of Th2 immune responses by enhancing the function of OX40 ligand. Allergol Int 63:443–455. doi:10.2332/allergolint.13-OA-0672
Murali-Krishna K, Altman JD, Suresh M et al (1998) Counting antigen-specific CD8 T cells: a reevaluation of bystander activation during viral infection. Immunity 8:177–187. doi:10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80470-7
Neill DR, Wong SH, Bellosi A et al (2010) Nuocytes represent a new innate effector leukocyte that mediates type-2 immunity. Nature 464:1367–1370. doi:10.1038/nature08900
Nestle FO, Di Meglio P, Qin J-Z, Nickoloff BJ (2009) Skin immune sentinels in health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 9:679–691. doi:10.1038/nri2622
Oiwa M, Satoh T, Watanabe M et al (2008) CRTH2-dependent, STAT6-independent induction of cedar pollen dermatitis. Clin Exp Allergy 38:1357–1366. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.03007.x
Ott H, Stanzel S, Ocklenburg C et al (2009) Total serum IgE as a parameter to differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic atopic dermatitis in children. Acta Derm Venereol 89:257–261. doi:10.2340/00015555-0627
Oyoshi MK, Murphy GF, Geha RS (2009) Filaggrin-deficient mice exhibit TH17-dominated skin inflammation and permissiveness to epicutaneous sensitization with protein antigen. J Allergy Clin Immunol 124:485–93, 493.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.05.042
Oyoshi MK, Larson RP, Ziegler SF, Geha RS (2010) Mechanical injury polarizes skin dendritic cells to elicit a T(H)2 response by inducing cutaneous thymic stromal lymphopoietin expression. J Allergy Clin Immunol 126:976–84, 984.e1–5. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2010.08.041
Palmer CNA, Irvine AD, Terron-Kwiatkowski A et al (2006) Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis. Nat Genet 38:441–446. doi:10.1038/ng1767
Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Smallacombe T et al (1999) Development of allergen-specific T-cell memory in atopic and normal children. Lancet 353:196–200. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05104-6
Purton JF, Tan JT, Rubinstein MP et al (2007) Antiviral CD4+ memory T cells are IL-15 dependent. J Exp Med 204:951–961. doi:10.1084/jem.20061805
Quintana FJ, Basso AS, Iglesias AH et al (2008) Control of T(reg) and T(H)17 cell differentiation by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Nature 453:65–71. doi:10.1038/nature06880
Ramasamy A, Curjuric I, Coin LJ et al (2011) A genome-wide meta-analysis of genetic variants associated with allergic rhinitis and grass sensitization and their interaction with birth order. J Allergy Clin Immunol 128:996–1005. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2011.08.030
Rangasamy T, Guo J, Mitzner W a et al (2005) Disruption of Nrf2 enhances susceptibility to severe airway inflammation and asthma in mice. J Exp Med 202:47–59. doi:10.1084/jem.20050538
Rank MA, Kobayashi T, Kozaki H et al (2009) IL-33-activated dendritic cells induce an atypical TH2-type response. J Allergy Clin Immunol 123:1047–1054. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.02.026
Ricci G, Patrizi A, Baldi E et al (2006) Long-term follow-up of atopic dermatitis: retrospective analysis of related risk factors and association with concomitant allergic diseases. J Am Acad Dermatol 55:765–771. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2006.04.064
Roediger B, Kyle R, Yip KH et al (2013) Cutaneous immunosurveillance and regulation of inflammation by group 2 innate lymphoid cells. Nat Immunol 14:564–573. doi:10.1038/ni.2584
Roguedas-Contios A-M, Misery L (2011) What is intrinsic atopic dermatitis? Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 41:233–236. doi:10.1007/s12016-011-8276-9
Rushmore TH, Morton MR, Pickett CB (1991) The antioxidant responsive element activation by oxidative stress and identification of the DNA consensus sequence required for functional activity. J Biol Chem 266:11632–11639
Salimi M, Barlow JL, Saunders SP et al (2013) A role for IL-25 and IL-33-driven type-2 innate lymphoid cells in atopic dermatitis. J Exp Med 210:2939–2950. doi:10.1084/jem.20130351
Santamaria Babi LF, Picker LJ, Perez Soler MT et al (1995) Circulating allergen-reactive T cells from patients with atopic dermatitis and allergic contact dermatitis express the skin-selective homing receptor, the cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen. J Exp Med 181:1935–1940
Saulyte J, Regueira C, Montes-Martínez A et al (2014) Active or passive exposure to tobacco smoking and allergic rhinitis, allergic dermatitis, and food allergy in adults and children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 11:e1001611. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001611
Saunes M, Øien T, Dotterud CK et al (2012) Early eczema and the risk of childhood asthma: a prospective, population-based study. BMC Pediatr 12:168. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-12-168
Savinko T, Matikainen S, Saarialho-Kere U et al (2012) IL-33 and ST2 in atopic dermatitis: expression profiles and modulation by triggering factors. J Invest Dermatol 132:1392–1400. doi:10.1038/jid.2011.446
Schmitz J, Owyang A, Oldham E et al (2005) IL-33, an interleukin-1-like cytokine that signals via the IL-1 receptor-related protein ST2 and induces T helper type 2-associated cytokines. Immunity 23:479–490. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2005.09.015
Seneviratne SL, Black AP, Jones L et al (2007) The role of skin-homing T cells in extrinsic atopic dermatitis. QJM 100:19–27. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hcl132
Shimizu Y, Nakatsuru Y, Ichinose M et al (2000) Benzo[a]pyrene carcinogenicity is lost in mice lacking the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci 97:779–782. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.2.779
Shimizu M, Matsuda A, Yanagisawa K et al (2005) Functional SNPs in the distal promoter of the ST2 gene are associated with atopic dermatitis. Hum Mol Genet 14:2919–2927. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddi323
Sivaranjani N (2013) Role of reactive oxygen species and antioxidants in atopic dermatitis. J Clin Diagnostic Res 7(12):2683–2685. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2013/6635.3732
Sonnenberg GF, Mjösberg J, Spits H, Artis D (2013) Snapshot: innate lymphoid cells. Immunity 39:622–622.e1. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2013.08.021
Soumelis V, Reche PA, Kanzler H et al (2002) Human epithelial cells trigger dendritic cell mediated allergic inflammation by producing TSLP. Nat Immunol 3:673–680. doi:10.1038/ni805
Spergel JM, Paller AS (2003) Atopic dermatitis and the atopic march. J Allergy Clin Immunol 112:S118–S127. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2003.09.033
Spits H, Cupedo T (2012) Innate lymphoid cells: emerging insights in development, lineage relationships, and function. Annu Rev Immunol 30:647–675. doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-020711-075053
Spits H, Artis D, Colonna M et al (2013) Innate lymphoid cells – a proposal for uniform nomenclature. Nat Rev Immunol 13:145–149. doi:10.1038/nri3365
Suzuki T, Motohashi H, Yamamoto M (2013) Toward clinical application of the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway. Trends Pharmacol Sci 34:340–346. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2013.04.005
Taguchi K, Motohashi H, Yamamoto M (2011) Molecular mechanisms of the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway in stress response and cancer evolution. Genes Cells 16:123–140. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2443.2010.01473.x
Takano H, Yoshikawa T, Ichinose TI et al. Diesel exhaust particles enhance antigen-induced airway inflammation and local cytokine expression in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156: 36–42. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.156.1.9610054
Takenaka H, Zhang K, Diaz-Sanchez D et al (1995) Enhanced human IgE production results from exposure to the aromatic hydrocarbons from diesel exhaust: direct effects on B-cell IgE production. J Allergy Clin Immunol 95:103–115. doi:10.1016/S0091-6749(95)70158-3
Tamagawa-Mineoka R, Okuzawa Y, Masuda K, Katoh N (2014) Increased serum levels of interleukin 33 in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 70:882–888. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2014.01.867
Tauchi M, Hida A, Negishi T et al (2005) Constitutive expression of aryl hydrocarbon receptor in keratinocytes causes inflammatory skin lesions. Mol Cell Biol 25(21):9360–9368. doi:10.1128/MCB.25.21.9360
Thimmulappa RK, Lee H, Rangasamy T et al (2006) Nrf2 is a critical regulator of the innate immune response and survival during experimental sepsis. J Clin Invest 116:984–995. doi:10.1172/JCI25790
Troehmann ARNES, Oyle ANJC, Rogan JANELG et al (1998) T1/ST2 is preferentially expressed on murine Th2 cells, independent of interleukin 4, interleukin 5, and interleukin 10, and important for Th2 effector function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95(12):6930–6935
Van Reijsen FC, Bruijnzeel-Koomen CA, Kalthoff FS et al (1992) Skin-derived aeroallergen-specific T-cell clones of Th2 phenotype in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 90:184–193. doi:10.1016/0091-6749(92)90070-I
Veldhoen M, Hirota K, Westendorf AM et al (2008) The aryl hydrocarbon receptor links TH17-cell-mediated autoimmunity to environmental toxins. Nature 453:106–109. doi:10.1038/nature06881
Villanova F, Flutter B, Tosi I et al (2014) Characterization of innate lymphoid cells in human skin and blood demonstrates increase of NKp44+ ILC3 in psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol 134:984–991. doi:10.1038/jid.2013.477
Von Kobyletzki LB, Bornehag C-G, Hasselgren M et al (2012) Eczema in early childhood is strongly associated with the development of asthma and rhinitis in a prospective cohort. BMC Dermatol 12:11. doi:10.1186/1471-5945-12-11
Von Kobyletzki L, Svensson Å, Apfelbacher C, Schmitt J (2015) Factors that predict remission of infant atopic dermatitis: a systematic review. Acta Derm Venereol 95:389–394. doi:10.2340/00015555-1941
Wakugawa M, Nakamura K, Kakinuma T et al (2001) CC chemokine receptor 4 expression on peripheral blood CD4+ T cells reflects disease activity of atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 117:188–196. doi:10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.01430.x
Wang Y-H, Ito T, Wang Y-H et al (2006) Maintenance and polarization of human TH2 central memory T cells by thymic stromal lymphopoietin-activated dendritic cells. Immunity 24:827–838. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2006.03.019
Wang I-J, Hsieh W-S, Wu K-Y et al (2008) Effect of gestational smoke exposure on atopic dermatitis in the offspring. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 19:580–586. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2008.00759.x
Watanabe N, Hanabuchi S, Soumelis V et al (2004) Human thymic stromal lymphopoietin promotes dendritic cell-mediated CD4+ T cell homeostatic expansion. Nat Immunol 5:426–434. doi:10.1038/ni1048
Wherry EJ, Ahmed R (2004) Memory CD8 T-cell differentiation during viral infection. J Virol 78:5535–5545. doi:10.1128/JVI.78.11.5535-5545.2004
Williams H, Flohr C (2006) How epidemiology has challenged 3 prevailing concepts about atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 118:209–213. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.04.043
Wilson SR, Thé L, Batia LM et al (2013) The epithelial cell-derived atopic dermatitis cytokine TSLP activates neurons to induce itch. Cell 155:285–295. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.08.057
Wolterink RGJK, Kleinjan A, van Nimwegen M et al (2012) Pulmonary innate lymphoid cells are major producers of IL-5 and IL-13 in murine models of allergic asthma. Eur J Immunol 42:1106–1116. doi:10.1002/eji.201142018
Wüthrich B, Schmid-Grendelmeier P (2002) Natural course of AEDS. Allergy 57:267–268. doi:10.1034/j.1398-9995.2002.1n3572.x
Xu BD, Chan WL, Leung BP et al (1998) Selective expression of a stable cell surface molecule on type 2 but not type 1 helper T cells. J Exp Med 187:787–794. doi:10.1084/jem.187.5.787
Yoo J, Omori M, Gyarmati D et al (2005) Spontaneous atopic dermatitis in mice expressing an inducible thymic stromal lymphopoietin transgene specifically in the skin. J Exp Med 202:541–549. doi:10.1084/jem.20041503
Zhang Z, Hener P, Frossard N et al (2009) Thymic stromal lymphopoietin overproduced by keratinocytes in mouse skin aggravates experimental asthma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:1536–1541. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812668106
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer Japan
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hidaka, T., Kobayashi, E.H., Yamamoto, M. (2016). Chronicity of Immune Abnormality in Atopic Dermatitis: Interacting Surface Between Environment and Immune System. In: Miyasaka, M., Takatsu, K. (eds) Chronic Inflammation. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56068-5_20
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56068-5_20
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Tokyo
Print ISBN: 978-4-431-56066-1
Online ISBN: 978-4-431-56068-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)