Abstract
Neuroprosthetic devices generally can be categorized as open-loop neuromodulation systems, which directly or indirectly excite neural tissue, or brain–computer interfaces, which derive control signals from the brain to operate external devices. Increasingly, neuroscientists, computer scientists, and engineers are beginning to envision and develop closed-loop systems that stimulate neuronal populations contingent upon a particular neuronal signal derived from another population of neurons. In the near future, investigations into the feasibility and efficacy of closed-loop systems for treating neurological conditions will likely emerge. Such conditions will include epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, and potentially stroke, traumatic brain injury, and spinal cord injury. Thus, it is now critical to understand how such systems interact with the neural circuitry and how communication may be altered. The present theoretical model focuses on the potential ability for closed-loop systems to regulate synaptic potentiation in long-distance pathways in the nervous system, particularly corticocortical pathways between different functional areas. Because the demonstration of long-term potentiation and long-term depression in animal preparations has utilized stimulation timing protocols that are not typically feasible using noninvasive techniques, the present theoretical model focuses on the use of recording microelectrodes implanted within the cerebral cortex and that are able to discriminate individual action potentials. Likewise, the proposed model assumes that stimulating microelectrodes are also implanted intracortically, allowing focal stimulation of a small volume of cortical tissue. Despite the challenges of invasive procedures using implantable technology, such closed-loop systems have the potential to provide new treatment avenues in a host of neurological conditions.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Coronado VG, Thomas KE, Sattin RW, Johnson RL (2005) The CDC traumatic brain injury surveillance system: characteristics of persons aged 65 years and older hospitalized with a TBI. J Head Trauma Rehabil 20(3):215–228
Leibson CL, Brown AW, Ransom JE, Diehl NN, Perkins PK, Mandrekar J, Malec JF (2011) Incidence of traumatic brain injury across the full disease spectrum: a population-based medical record review study. Epidemiology 22(6):836–844. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e318231d535
Lloyd-Jones D, Adams R, Carnethon M, De Simone G, Ferguson TB, Flegal K, Ford E, Furie K, Go A, Greenlund K, Haase N, Hailpern S, Ho M, Howard V, Kissela B, Kittner S, Lackland D, Lisabeth L, Marelli A, McDermott M, Meigs J, Mozaffarian D, Nichol G, O’Donnell C, Roger V, Rosamond W, Sacco R, Sorlie P, Stafford R, Steinberger J, Thom T, Wasserthiel-Smoller S, Wong N, Wylie-Rosett J, Hong Y, American Heart Association Statistics Committee, Stroke Statistics Subcommittee (2009) Heart disease and stroke statistics—2009 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 119(3):e21–e181. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.191261
Duncan PW (1994) Stroke disability. Phys Ther 74(5):399–407
Duncan PW, Lai SM, Keighley J (2000) Defining post-stroke recovery: implications for design and interpretation of drug trials. Neuropharmacology 39(5):835–841
Patel AT, Duncan PW, Lai SM, Studenski S (2000) The relation between impairments and functional outcomes poststroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 81(10):1357–1363. doi:10.1053/apmr.2000.9397
Pulvermuller F, Neininger B, Elbert T, Mohr B, Rockstroh B, Koebbel P, Taub E (2001) Constraint-induced therapy of chronic aphasia after stroke. Stroke 32(7):1621–1626
Taub E, Uswatte G, King DK, Morris D, Crago JE, Chatterjee A (2006) A placebo-controlled trial of constraint-induced movement therapy for upper extremity after stroke. Stroke 37(4):1045–1049. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000206463.66461.97
Rose DK, Winstein CJ (2004) Bimanual training after stroke: are two hands better than one? Top Stroke Rehabil 11:20–30
Bolognini N, Pascual-Leone A, Fregni F (2009) Using non-invasive brain stimulation to augment motor training-induced plasticity. J Neuroeng Rehabil 6:8. doi:10.1186/1743-0003-6-8
Dimyan MA, Cohen LG (2010) Contribution of transcranial magnetic stimulation to the understanding of functional recovery mechanisms after stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 24(2):125–135. doi:10.1177/1545968309345270
Harris-Love ML, Morton SM, Perez MA, Cohen LG (2011) Mechanisms of short-term training-induced reaching improvement in severely hemiparetic stroke patients: a TMS study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 25(5):398–411. doi:10.1177/1545968310395600
Butefisch CM, Davis BC, Sawaki L, Waldvogel D, Classen J, Kopylev L, Cohen LG (2002) Modulation of use-dependent plasticity by d-amphetamine. Ann Neurol 51(1):59–68
Papadopoulos CM, Tsai SY, Guillen V, Ortega J, Kartje GL, Wolf WA (2009) Motor recovery and axonal plasticity with short-term amphetamine after stroke. Stroke 40(1):294–302. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.519769
Lee DH, Strittmatter SM, Sah DW (2003) Targeting the Nogo receptor to treat central nervous system injuries. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2(11):872–878. doi:10.1038/nrd1228
Lee JK, Kim JE, Sivula M, Strittmatter SM (2004) Nogo receptor antagonism promotes stroke recovery by enhancing axonal plasticity. J Neurosci 24(27):6209–6217. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1643-04.2004
Nudo RJ, Sutherland DP, Masterton RB (1995) Variation and evolution of mammalian corticospinal somata with special reference to primates. J Comp Neurol 358(2):181–205. doi:10.1002/cne.903580203
Lo EH, Dalkara T, Moskowitz MA (2003) Mechanisms, challenges and opportunities in stroke. Nat Rev Neurosci 4(5):399–415. doi:10.1038/nrn1106
Nudo RJ (2007) Postinfarct cortical plasticity and behavioral recovery. Stroke 38(2 Suppl):840–845. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000247943.12887.d2
Dancause N, Barbay S, Frost SB, Plautz EJ, Chen D, Zoubina EV, Stowe AM, Nudo RJ (2005) Extensive cortical rewiring after brain injury. J Neurosci 25(44):10167–10179. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3256-05.2005
Metz GA, Antonow-Schlorke I, Witte OW (2005) Motor improvements after focal cortical ischemia in adult rats are mediated by compensatory mechanisms. Behav Brain Res 162(1):71–82. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2005.03.002
Napieralski JA, Butler AK, Chesselet MF (1996) Anatomical and functional evidence for lesion-specific sprouting of corticostriatal input in the adult rat. J Comp Neurol 373(4):484–497. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19960930)373:4<484::AID-CNE2>3.0.CO;2-Y
Nudo RJ, Milliken GW (1996) Reorganization of movement representations in primary motor cortex following focal ischemic infarcts in adult squirrel monkeys. J Neurophysiol 75(5):2144–2149
Wieloch T, Nikolich K (2006) Mechanisms of neural plasticity following brain injury. Curr Opin Neurobiol 16(3):258–264. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2006.05.011
Frost SB, Barbay S, Friel KM, Plautz EJ, Nudo RJ (2003) Reorganization of remote cortical regions after ischemic brain injury: a potential substrate for stroke recovery. J Neurophysiol 89(6):3205–3214. doi:10.1152/jn.01143.2002
Carmichael ST, Archibeque I, Luke L, Nolan T, Momiy J, Li S (2005) Growth-associated gene expression after stroke: evidence for a growth-promoting region in peri-infarct cortex. Exp Neurol 193(2):291–311. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2005.01.004
Urban ET 3rd, Bury SD, Barbay HS, Guggenmos DJ, Dong Y, Nudo RJ (2012) Gene expression changes of interconnected spared cortical neurons 7 days after ischemic infarct of the primary motor cortex in the rat. Mol Cell Biochem 369(1–2):267–286. doi:10.1007/s11010-012-1390-z
Stowe AM, Plautz EJ, Eisner-Janowicz I, Frost SB, Barbay S, Zoubina EV, Dancause N, Taylor MD, Nudo RJ (2007) VEGF protein associates to neurons in remote regions following cortical infarct. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 27(1):76–85. doi:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600320
Katz LC, Shatz CJ (1996) Synaptic activity and the construction of cortical circuits. Science 274(5290):1133–1138
Stellwagen D, Shatz CJ (2002) An instructive role for retinal waves in the development of retinogeniculate connectivity. Neuron 33(3):357–367
Carmichael ST, Chesselet MF (2002) Synchronous neuronal activity is a signal for axonal sprouting after cortical lesions in the adult. J Neurosci 22(14):6062–6070
Canty AJ, Murphy M (2008) Molecular mechanisms of axon guidance in the developing corticospinal tract. Prog Neurobiol 85(2):214–235. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.02.001
Pernet V, Schwab ME (2012) The role of Nogo-A in axonal plasticity, regrowth and repair. Cell Tissue Res 349:97–104
Chilton JK (2006) Molecular mechanisms of axon guidance. Dev Biol 292(1):13–24. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.12.048
Mueller BK (1999) Growth cone guidance: first steps towards a deeper understanding. Annu Rev Neurosci 22:351–388. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.351
Zhang LI, Poo MM (2001) Electrical activity and development of neural circuits. Nat Neurosci 4(Suppl):1207–1214. doi:10.1038/nn753
Kleim JA, Lussnig E, Schwarz ER, Comery TA, Greenough WT (1996) Synaptogenesis and Fos expression in the motor cortex of the adult rat after motor skill learning. J Neurosci 16(14):4529–4535
Brown CE, Murphy TH (2008) Livin’ on the edge: imaging dendritic spine turnover in the peri-infarct zone during ischemic stroke and recovery. Neuroscientist 14(2):139–146. doi:10.1177/1073858407309854
Greenough WT, Hwang HM, Gorman C (1985) Evidence for active synapse formation or altered postsynaptic metabolism in visual cortex of rats reared in complex environments. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 82(13):4549–4552
Kleim JA, Barbay S, Nudo RJ (1998) Functional reorganization of the rat motor cortex following motor skill learning. J Neurophysiol 80(6):3321–3325
Corbetta M (2012) Functional connectivity and neurological recovery. Dev Psychobiol 54(3):239–253. doi:10.1002/dev.20507
Deco G, Corbetta M (2011) The dynamical balance of the brain at rest. Neuroscientist 17(1):107–123. doi:10.1177/1073858409354384
Hillary FG, Slocomb J, Hills EC, Fitzpatrick NM, Medaglia JD, Wang J, Good DC, Wylie GR (2011) Changes in resting connectivity during recovery from severe traumatic brain injury. Int J Psychophysiol 82(1):115–123. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.03.011
Mayer AR, Mannell MV, Ling J, Gasparovic C, Yeo RA (2011) Functional connectivity in mild traumatic brain injury. Hum Brain Mapp 32(11):1825–1835. doi:10.1002/hbm.21151
Nudo RJ, Friel KM, Delia SW (2000) Role of sensory deficits in motor impairments after injury to primary motor cortex. Neuropharmacology 39(5):733–742
Varkuti B, Guan C, Pan Y, Phua KS, Ang KK, Kuah CW, Chua K, Ang BT, Birbaumer N, Sitaram R (2013) Resting state changes in functional connectivity correlate with movement recovery for BCI and robot-assisted upper-extremity training after stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 27(1):53–62. doi:10.1177/1545968312445910
Tanji J (2001) Sequential organization of multiple movements: involvement of cortical motor areas. Annu Rev Neurosci 24:631–651. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.631
Kaeser M, Wyss AF, Bashir S, Hamadjida A, Liu Y, Bloch J, Brunet JF, Belhaj-Saif A, Rouiller EM (2010) Effects of unilateral motor cortex lesion on ipsilesional hand’s reach and grasp performance in monkeys: relationship with recovery in the contralesional hand. J Neurophysiol 103(3):1630–1645. doi:10.1152/jn.00459.2009
Kantak SS, Stinear JW, Buch ER, Cohen LG (2012) Rewiring the brain: potential role of the premotor cortex in motor control, learning, and recovery of function following brain injury. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 26(3):282–292. doi:10.1177/1545968311420845
Hoshi E, Tanji J (2004) Area-selective neuronal activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for information retrieval and action planning. J Neurophysiol 91(6):2707–2722. doi:10.1152/jn.00904.2003
Hoshi E, Tanji J (2004) Differential roles of neuronal activity in the supplementary and presupplementary motor areas: from information retrieval to motor planning and execution. J Neurophysiol 92(6):3482–3499. doi:10.1152/jn.00547.2004
Nudo RJ, Plautz EJ, Milliken GW (1997) Adaptive plasticity in primate motor cortex as a consequence of behavioral experience and neuronal injury. Semin Neurosci 9:13–23. doi:10.1006/smns.1997.0102
Friel KM, Barbay S, Frost SB, Plautz EJ, Hutchinson DM, Stowe AM, Dancause N, Zoubina EV, Quaney BM, Nudo RJ (2005) Dissociation of sensorimotor deficits after rostral versus caudal lesions in the primary motor cortex hand representation. J Neurophysiol 94(2):1312–1324. doi:10.1152/jn.01251.2004
Friel KM, Martin JH (2005) Role of sensory-motor cortex activity in postnatal development of corticospinal axon terminals in the cat. J Comp Neurol 485(1):43–56. doi:10.1002/cne.20483
Nudo RJ (2006) Mechanisms for recovery of motor function following cortical damage. Curr Opin Neurobiol 16(6):638–644. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2006.10.004
Adkins DL, Campos P, Quach D, Borromeo M, Schallert K, Jones TA (2006) Epidural cortical stimulation enhances motor function after sensorimotor cortical infarcts in rats. Exp Neurol 200(2):356–370. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.02.131
Adkins-Muir DL, Jones TA (2003) Cortical electrical stimulation combined with rehabilitative training: enhanced functional recovery and dendritic plasticity following focal cortical ischemia in rats. Neurol Res 25(8):780–788
Plautz EJ, Barbay S, Frost SB, Friel KM, Dancause N, Zoubina EV, Stowe AM, Quaney BM, Nudo RJ (2003) Post-infarct cortical plasticity and behavioral recovery using concurrent cortical stimulation and rehabilitative training: a feasibility study in primates. Neurol Res 25(8):801–810
Plow EB, Carey JR, Nudo RJ, Pascual-Leone A (2009) Invasive cortical stimulation to promote recovery of function after stroke: a critical appraisal. Stroke 40:1926–1931. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.540823
Georgopoulos AP (1986) On reaching. Annu Rev Neurosci 9:147–170. doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.09.030186.001051
Georgopoulos AP, Kalaska JF, Caminiti R, Massey JT (1982) On the relations between the direction of two-dimensional arm movements and cell discharge in primate motor cortex. J Neurosci 2(11):1527–1537
Georgopoulos AP, Schwartz AB, Kettner RE (1986) Neuronal population coding of movement direction. Science 233(4771):1416–1419
Brumberg JS, Wright EJ, Andreasen DS, Guenther FH, Kennedy PR (2011) Classification of intended phoneme production from chronic intracortical microelectrode recordings in speech-motor cortex. Front Neurosci 5:65. doi:10.3389/fnins.2011.00065
Carmena JM, Lebedev MA, Crist RE, O’Doherty JE, Santucci DM, Dimitrov DF, Patil PG, Henriquez CS, Nicolelis MA (2003) Learning to control a brain–machine interface for reaching and grasping by primates. PLoS Biol 1(2):E42. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000042
Hochberg LR, Serruya MD, Friehs GM, Mukand JA, Saleh M, Caplan AH, Branner A, Chen D, Penn RD, Donoghue JP (2006) Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia. Nature 442(7099):164–171. doi:10.1038/nature04970
Hochberg LR, Bacher D, Jarosiewicz B, Masse NY, Simeral JD, Vogel J, Haddadin S, Liu J, Cash SS, van der Smagt P, Donoghue JP (2012) Reach and grasp by people with tetraplegia using a neurally controlled robotic arm. Nature 485(7398):372–375. doi:10.1038/nature11076
Hebb DO (1949) The organization of behavior: a neuropsychological approach. Wiley, New York
Pittenger C, Kandel ER (2003) In search of general mechanisms for long-lasting plasticity: Aplysia and the hippocampus. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 358:757–763. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2002.1247
Baranyi A, Feher O (1981) Synaptic facilitation requires paired activation of convergent pathways in the neocortex. Nature 290(5805):413–415
Frégnac Y, Shulz D, Thorpe S, Bienenstock E (1988) A cellular analogue of visual cortical plasticity. Nature 333(6171):367–370
Charpier S, Deniau JM (1997) In vivo activity-dependent plasticity at cortico-striatal connections: evidence for physiological long-term potentiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94(13):7036–7040
Jackson A, Mavoori J, Fetz EE (2006) Long-term motor cortex plasticity induced by an electronic neural implant. Nature 444:56–60. doi:10.1038/nature05226
Rebesco JM, Miller LE (2011) Stimulus-driven changes in sensorimotor behavior and neuronal functional connectivity application to brain–machine interfaces and neurorehabilitation. Prog Brain Res 192:83–102. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53355-5.00006-3
Shih JJ, Krusienski DJ, Wolpaw JR (2012) Brain–computer interfaces in medicine. Mayo Clin Proc 87(3):268–279. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2011.12.008
Adkins DL, Hsu JE, Jones TA (2008) Motor cortical stimulation promotes synaptic plasticity and behavioral improvements following sensorimotor cortex lesions. Exp Neurol 212:14–28. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.01.031
Baba T, Kameda M, Yasuhara T, Morimoto T, Kondo A, Shingo T, Tajiri N, Wang F, Miyoshi Y, Borlongan CV, Matsumae M, Date I (2009) Electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex exerts antiapoptotic, angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory effects in ischemic stroke rats through phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt signaling pathway. Stroke 40:e598–e605. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.563627
Kleim JA, Bruneau R, VandenBerg P, MacDonald E, Mulrooney R, Pocock D (2003) Motor cortex stimulation enhances motor recovery and reduces peri-infarct dysfunction following ischemic insult. Neurol Res 25:789–793. doi:10.1179/016164103771953862
Yoon KJ, Oh BM, Kim DY (2012) Functional improvement and neuroplastic effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) delivered 1 day vs. 1 week after cerebral ischemia in rats. Brain Res 1452:61–72. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.062
Henderson AK, Pittman QJ, Teskey GC (2012) High frequency stimulation alters motor maps, impairs skilled reaching performance and is accompanied by an upregulation of specific GABA, glutamate and NMDA receptor subunits. Neuroscience 215:98–113. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.04.040
Jahanshahi A, Schonfeld L, Janssen ML, Hescham S, Kocabicak E, Steinbusch HW, van Overbeeke JJ, Temel Y (2013) Electrical stimulation of the motor cortex enhances progenitor cell migration in the adult rat brain. Exp Brain Res 231:165–177. doi:10.1007/s00221-013-3680-4
Teskey GC, Flynn C, Goertzen CD, Monfils MH, Young NA (2003) Cortical stimulation improves skilled forelimb use following a focal ischemic infarct in the rat. Neurol Res 25:794–800. doi:10.1179/016164103771953871
Malenka RC, Bear MF (2004) LTP and LTD: an embarrassment of riches. Neuron 44:5–21. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.012
Feldman DE (2009) Synaptic mechanisms for plasticity in neocortex. Ann Rev Neurosci 32:33–55. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.13551
Trepel C, Racine RJ (1998) Long-term potentiation in the neocortex of the adult, freely moving rat. Cereb Cortex 8:719–729
Racine RJ, Chapman CA, Trepel C, Teskey GC, Milgram NW (1995) Post-activation potentiation in the neocortex. IV. Multiple sessions required for induction of long-term potentiation in the chronic preparation. Brain Res 702:87–93
Hawes SL, Gillani F, Evans RC, Benkert EA, Blackwell KT (2013) Sensitivity to theta-burst timing permits LTP in dorsal striatal adult brain slice. J Neurophysiol 110:2027–2036. doi:10.1152/jn.00115.2013
Schiene K, Bruehl C, Zilles K, Qu M, Hagemann G, Witte OW (1996) Neuronal hyperexcitability and reduction of GABAA-receptor expression in the surround of cerebral photothrombosis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 16:906–914
Duker AP, Espay AJ (2013) Surgical treatment of Parkinson disease: past, present, and future. Neurol Clin 31:799–808. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2013.03.007
Afshar P, Khambhati A, Stanslaski S, Carlson D, Jensen R, Linde D, Dani S, Lazarewicz M, Cong P, Giftakis J, Stypulkowski P, Denison T (2012) A translational platform for prototyping closed-loop neuromodulation systems. Front Neural Circuits 6:117. doi:10.3389/fncir.2012.00117
Santos FJ, Costa RM, Tecuapetla F (2011) Stimulation on demand: closing the loop on deep brain stimulation. Neuron 72:197–198. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.10.004
Jackson A, Zimmermann JB (2012) Neural interfaces for the brain and spinal cord-restoring motor function. Nat Rev Neurol 8:690–699. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2012.219
Nishimura Y, Perlmutter SI, Fetz EE (2013) Restoration of upper limb movement via artificial corticospinal and musculospinal connections in a monkey with spinal cord injury. Front Neural Circuits 7:57. doi:10.3389/fncir.2013.00057
Berger T, Song D, Chan R, Shin D, Marmarelis V, Hampson R, Sweatt A, Heck C, Liu C, Wills J, Lacoss J, Granacki J, Gerhardt G, Deadwyler S (2012) Role of the hippocampus in memory formation: restorative encoding memory integration neural device as a cognitive neural prosthesis. IEEE Pulse 3:17–22. doi:10.1109/MPUL.2012.2205775
Catani M, Mesulam M (2008) What is a disconnection syndrome? Cortex 44:911–913. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2008.05.001
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer Japan
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Guggenmos, D.J., Nudo, R.J. (2015). Theoretical Basis for Closed-Loop Stimulation as a Therapeutic Approach to Brain Injury. In: Kansaku, K., Cohen, L., Birbaumer, N. (eds) Clinical Systems Neuroscience. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55037-2_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55037-2_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Tokyo
Print ISBN: 978-4-431-55036-5
Online ISBN: 978-4-431-55037-2
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)