Abstract
After defining the basic concepts of this study, this chapter serves to discuss theoretical approaches which investigate 1) entrepreneurial management competencies in the context of young technological ventures, 2) new venture development models, and 3) the relationship between entrepreneurial management competencies and the development of NTBFs.
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References
In order to obtain an understanding of the present state of research on competence in the entrepreneurial field literature databases have been investigated for terms like ‘competence’, ‘competency’, ‘ability’ etc. in connection with ‘management’, ‘entrepreneur’, ‘founder’ etc. Additionally prominent works of the entrepreneurial domain have been included in the search. In a second step the findings have been revised to extract those, which a) present discussions on the content of competence, which b) specifically refer to new ventures, which c) incorporate a sufficiently detailed explanation of the competence domains and which d) at least involve some theoretical or conceptual foundation. The condition of offering ‘a sufficiently detailed explanation’ was important, because the goal of this research step was to identify literature, which could support the development of a grid for structuring competence domains. Though different studies analyze elements of competence (e.g. Walter, A., et al., 2003; Schefczyk, M. and Gerpott, T.J., 2000, 67; Szyperski, N. and Nathusius, K., 1977, 38–41; Brüderl, J., et al., 1996, 121–131; Olson, P.D., 1985, 25; Davidsson, P. and Honig, B., 2003, S. 302; Snell, R., Lau, A., 1994), these studies do not primarily intend to conceptualize competence. They are reconsidered at a later stage to detail the understanding of the competence domains.
Driessen, M.R. and Zwart, P.S., 1999; Röpcke, J., 2002; Herron, L., 1994, 28.
Chandler, G.N. and Jansen, E., 1992, 225.
Chandler, G.N. and Jansen, E., 1992, 225–226. Chandler, G.N. and Hanks, S.H., 1994 use the entrepreneurial and managerial competence as moderating constructs to assess the effects organizational resources and the quality of the business opportunity have on venture performance.
Most competence contents in the constructs presented above are only roughly outlined: Partly, only one item operationalizations are applied to specify them. See e.g. Herron, L., 1994.
Herron, L., 1994 operationalizes his competence dimensions with one item. This hinders the interpretation of the dimensions. For a discussion on Katz’s management skill concept refer to chapter 3.1.2.
Ansoff, H.I., 1965; Bleicher, K., 1994; Porter, M.E., 2004; Eschenbach, R., 2003.
For early works about management competence refer to Katz, R.L., 1974 or Dahrendorf, R., 1956.
Penrose, E.T., 1996; Dahrendorf, R., 1956; Gutenberg, E., 1983; Katz, R.L., 1974.
While there is a vast number of other competence constructs, this illustration is believed to provide an adequate representation of the theoretical conception state. For further competence concepts refer to e.g. Erpenbeck, J. and von Rosenstiel, L., 2003b.
Other terms used are “Types of Competencies” Boyatzis, R.E., 1982, 25 or “Competency Domains” Stuart, R. and Lindsay, P., 1997, 28.
Herron, L., 1994, 48; Touet, M., 1997, 80.
Katz, R.L., 1974.
An exemption is Jeserich, who does not refer to functional skills Jeserich, W., 1981.
A wide-spread synonym for labeling functional competence is technical skill. Katz, R.L., 1974, 91. In this light it is obvious that the task-related competence is just a part of the overall competence and can not be applied synonymously for competence.
Gerig, V., 1998, 86.
Katz, R.L., 1974, 91.
Dahrendorf, R., 1956, 549–451.
Klein, R. and Körzel, R., 1993, 158; Gerig, V., 1998, 85; Touet, M., 1997, 82–85; Rummler, H.-M., 1991, 31–33. Authors distinguish between general and specific human capital. General capital refers to overall education and practical experiences. Specific human capital refers to the education and practical experiences with a limited scope of application. Dimov, D.P. and Shepherd, D.A., 2005; Gimeno, J., et al., 1997. Thus, the basic distinction between general and specific abilities is similar, but not equal. It has to be noted that the general competencies in this work are related to an overall task of heading the venture, but not to specific functional domains or sub-tasks. The general competencies in human capital approaches are broader in concept, since they are not necessarily supposed to relate to the task of founding and/or managing a business. Dimov, D.P. and Shepherd, D.A., 2005, 7.
Gerig, V., 1998, 232 proposes social skills.
Szilagyi, A.D.J. and Schweiger, D.M., 1984 identifies the ability to innovate, Katz, R.L., 1974 demands creative skills, and Grunwald, W., 2000 suggests techniques for creativity.
Konrad, E.D., 2000, 28.
Turin, G., 1947.
Gerig, V., 1998, 38; Hauschildt, J., 2004; Bygrave, W.D. and Hofer, C.W., 1991, 14.
Schumpeter, J., 1912, 127; Faltin, G., 1999, 2.
Schumpeter, J., 1993, 128–129.
Translation from German. Schumpeter, J., 1946, 215.
Lumpkin, G.T. and Dess, G.G., 1996, 142; Wiklund, J., 1999, 37.
Lumpkin, G.T. and Dess, G.G., 1996, 139.
Miller, D., 1983, 771.
Covin, J.G. and Slevin, D.P., 1989; Covin, J.G. and Slevin, D.P., 1991, 10.
Morris, M.H. and Paul, G.W., 1987; Morris, M.H., et al., 2001, 4.
Lumpkin, G.T. and Dess, G.G., 1996, 139; Lyon, D.W., et al., 2000.
Hauschildt, J., 2004, 12–13.
Schlaak, T.M., 1999; Hauschildt, J., 2004, 14–21.
The importance to develop a comprehensive competence concept for the entrepreneurial context is underlined by researchers proposing the ‘Jack-of-all-trades’ Lazear, E.P., 2002 or Carson, D. and Gilmore, A., 2000, 366.
Refer also to Gemünden, H.G. and Konrad, E.D., 2000.
Boyatzis, R.E., 1982 94.
Little, A.D., 1988 64.
Faltin, G., 1999, 7–9; Eggers, J.H., 1999, 77; Bartlett, C.A. and Ghoshal, S., 1997, 97.
Kotter, J.P., 1999, 148–149; Kotter, J.P., 1982.
Szilagyi, A.D.J. and Schweiger, D.M., 1984; Katz, R.L., 1974; Grunwald, W., 2000.
Schumpeter, J., 1993.
Mintzberg, H., 1989, 191; Bygrave, W.D., 1989, 10–11.
Little, A.D., 1988, 64.
Smart, D.T. and Conant, J.S., 1994; Lumpkin, G.T. and Dess, G.G., 1996.
Morris, M.H., et al., 2001, 4.
Auer, M., 2000, 46 differentiates entrepreneurial activities of initializing, combing, and enforcing.
Covin, J.G. and Slevin, D.P., 1989; Carson, D., et al., 1995, 159.
Gerig, V., 1998; Bunk, G.P., 1994.
Gerig, V., 1998.
Kauffeld, S. and Grote, S., 2002.
A similar structure is presented by Szilagyi, A.D.J. and Schweiger, D.M., 1984.
Drejer, A., 2000; Lechler, T. and Gemünden, H.G., 2002; Högl, M. and Gemünden, H.G., 2001; Müller, T.A., 2003.
Müller, T.A., 2003, 112.
These dimensions reflect the teamwork quality of R&D teams Högl, M. and Gemünden, H.G., 2001.
Kiffin-Petersen, S., 2004, 40.
Marks, M.A., et al., 2001, 358; Kiffin-Petersen, S., 2004, 39.
Kiffin-Petersen, S., 2004, 40.
Kiffin-Petersen, S., 2004.
Rousseau, D.M., et al., 1998, 394.
Different types of supervisory boards are presented by Gerum, E., 1991.
Kotter, J.P., 1982.
Stogdill, R.M., 1974, 7; Baumgartel, H., 1957.
Kochan, T.A., et al., 1975.
Steinmann, H. and Schreyögg, G., 2000, 548; Scholz, C., 1991, 321.
Chandler, G.N., 2000a; Jago, A.G., 1982; Shea, C.M., 1999; Kuhnert, K.W. and Lewis, P., 1987.
Jung, D.I. and B.J., A., 1999; Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K.H., 1982; Hopfe, M.W., 1970; Utecht, R.E. and Heier, W.D., 1976; Chapman, J.B., 1975; Gibson, C.B., 1995.
Gerig, V., 1998, 255.
Mintzberg, H., 1973, 60 describes the role of leadership from the employee perspective: “The organization looks to its formal head for guidance and motivation.”
Klocke, B., 2004, 45.
Refer to Gemünden, H.G. and Ritter, T., 1997.
Fombrun, J.C., 1982, 280 proposes that network actors can be any individuals or any form of aggregation of individuals like groups, organizations, communities, or even nations.
Boyatzis, R.E., 1982, 155–156; Schefczyk, M. and Gerpott, T.J., 2000, 145.
Also refer to Klocke, B., et al., 2003.
E.g. Klocke, B., 2004, 41–42; Human, S.E. and Provan, K.G., 1997; Osborn, R.N. and Hagedoorn, J., 1997.
Gemünden, H.G. and Ritter, T., 1997; Ritter, T., 1999; Ritter, T., et al., 2002.
Ritter, T., et al., 2002, 120.
Boyatzis, R.E., 1982, 17; Hills, G.E. and LaForge, R.W., 1992, 33–34.
Boyatzis, R.E., 1982, 27.
Porter, M.E., 2004.
Jost, P.-J., 2000, 460; Schierenbeck, H., 1998, 10.
Meier, A., 1998, 31.
Refer also to Day, G.S., 1992; Jaworski, B.J. and Kohli, A.K., 1993.
Salomo, S., et al., 2003 illustrate in their study that market-orientation in highly innovative projects indicates success. Since highly innovative projects have several parallels to new venture settings, these findings underline the importance of marketrelated abilities.
Brinckmann, J., et al., 2005. See also Roberts, E.B., 1991a, 347–348; Lussier, R.N. and Pfeifer, S., 2001, 231; Becherer, R.C. and Maurer, J.G., 1997, 55; Wupperfeld, U., 1993, 31–34; Rüggeberg, H., 1997, 115; Hisrich, R.D., 1992.
Roberts, E.B., 1991a, 188.
Ziegler, W., 1984.
HGB, 2005.
McCarthy, D.J., et al., 1987, 315; Roberts, E.B., 1991a, 346.
E.g. Walsh, S. and Linton, J.D., 2002 propose a technology competence concept for the semi-conductor industry.
Shipley, D., et al., 1998; Prasad, V.K., et al., 2001; Moorman, C. and Slotegraaf, R.J., 1999; Fahy, J., et al., 2000; Conant, J.S., et al., 1990.
Shipley, D., et al., 1998; Conant, J.S., et al., 1990.
Moorman, C. and Slotegraaf, R.J., 1999.
Kotabe, M., et al., 2002.
The St. Galler Management Model has evolved into a third generation. The origins of the St. Galler Management Model were laid by Hans Ulrich promoting a) a holistic approach in light of complexity, b) practical relevance of management theory, and c) the interaction of normative, strategic, and operational management levels. Ulrich, H., 2001; Ulrich, H. and Krieg, W., 1973. Other researchers have enhanced this concept. Bleicher, K., 1994; Bleicher, K., 2004; Rüegg-Stürm, J., 2002.
Bleicher, K., 1994, 73.
Leontiades, M., 1982, 46.
Schierenbeck, H., 1998, 83.
Procedural conceptions of technology-management are presented by Kramer, Bullinger, Badawy, Brockhoff, McMillian/McGrath etc. Procedural conceptions of marketing-management are presented by Meffert, H., 2000; Kotler, P., 1972, etc. Procedural conceptions of financial management are presented by Perridon/Steiner; Hauschildt, J., et al., 1981. Hierarchical conceptions of technology-management are presented by Tschirky, Luggen/Tschirky, etc. Hierarchical conceptions of marketing-management are presented by Nieschlag, R., et al., 2002, Bruhn, M., 2004, etc. Hierarchical conceptions of financial-management are presented by Hauschildt, J., et al., 1981.
Zahn, E., 1995, 4.
Also refer to Zahn, E., 1995, 4.
Tschirky, H., 1990, 12–14.
Hauschildt, J., 2004, 31.
Luggen, M. and Savioz, P., 2003, 3–6. Luggen, M. and Tschirky, H., 2003, 38.
Hauschildt, J., 2004, 31–32.
Luggen, M. and Savioz, P., 2003, 9; Tschirky, H., 1998, 294.
Probert, D.R., et al., 2003.
Gemünden, H.G. and Heydebreck, P., 1995.
Isusi, I. and Corral, A., No Year.
Kotler, P., 1972; Meffert, H., 2000; Nieschlag, R., et al., 2002; Coviello, N.E., et al., 2000; Fahy, J., et al., 2000; Morris, M.H., et al., 2001; Meier, A., 1998, 19.
Meffert, H., 2000, 13–15; Rüggeberg, H., 1997 20–21.
Kirchgeorg, M., 2001, 408.
Meffert, H., 2000, 28–31; Nieschlag, R., et al., 2002, 607.
Kirchgeorg, M., 2001, 408.
Luggen, M. and Savioz, P., 2003, 3–6. Luggen, M. and Tschirky, H., 2003, 38.
Nieschlag, R., et al., 2002.
Narver, J.C. and Slater, S.F., 1990, 21.
Other authors proclaim that the marketing effort has to be directed towards a wider range of stakeholders by illustrating a network or society marketing approach. Wiedmann, K.P., 1993; Achrol, R.A. and Kotler, P., 1999.
Becker, J., 1998, 137.
Scheuch, F., 1996, 124.
Meffert, H., 2000, 233; Becker, J., 1998, 147.
For a selection of strategic choices in the marketing domain refer to Meffert, H., 2000, 233–301.
Kirchgeorg, M., 2001, 408.
Kotler, P., n.y., 1964.
Meffert, H., 2000, 25–26. In a broader sense relationship marketing addresses all internal and external stake-holders. Meffert, H., 2000, 25. The marketing paradigm evolved to competitive marketing, society marketing and network marketing. Wiedmann, K.P., 1993; Achrol, R.A. and Kotler, P., 1999. However, in the new venture context a prime focus of the marketing efforts on direct market partners appears to be more appropriate considering the limited resources of a new firm.
Bruhn, M., 2001, 642.
Pinches, G.E., 1992, 4.
Pinches, G.E., 1992, 4.
Brinckmann, J., et al., 2005.
Hauschildt, J., et al., 1981; Süchting, J., 1995, 4.
Bierman, H.J., 1980 2–14.
Walker, E.W., 1978, 32.
Walker, E.W., 1978, 35.
Walker, E.W., 1978, 33–35 describes that strategic choices that imply periods of large losses are less viable for SMEs than for larger firms. At the same time strategies which mean more fluctuating profits might be more attractive for smaller private held firms than for large publicly traded corporations.
Eilenberger, G., 2003, 11.
Peridon, L. and Steiner, M., 2002, XVIII–XIX.
Maisberger, P., 1998.
Gallinger, G.W. and Healey, P.B., 1991, 6.
Walker, E.W., 1978, 82.
Meigs, R.F., et al., 1995, 4–5.
Diamond, M.A., 1996, 4.
Meigs, R.F., et al., 1995, 4–5.
Kazanjian, R.K., 1988, 257.
For overviews of different development models refer to Montanari, J.R., et al.,; Meier, A., 1998; Klocke, B., 2004, 11–15; Hartl, M., 2001, 5–8; Rüggeberg, H., 1997, 11.
Montanari, J.R., et al., 59; Gartner, W.B., 1985; Hansen, E.L. and Bird, B.J., 1997.
Reynolds, P. and Miller, B., 1992; Hansen, E.L. and Bird, B.J., 1997; Gartner, W.B., 1985.
Hansen, E.L. and Bird, B.J., 1997, 111. Linear perceptions are presented by Galbraith, J., 1982; Kazanjian, R.K. and Drazin, R., 1990; Roure, J.B. and Keeley, R.H., 1990. Marker based understandings are represented by Hansen, E.L. and Bird, B.J., 1997 and Katz, J.A. and Gartner, W.B., 1988. Loop-like concepts are proposed by Klocke, B., 2004. Stochastic views are presented by Gartner, W.B., 1985; Katz, J.A., 1993; Katz, J.A. and Gartner, W.B., 1988; Gersick, C., 1989; Reynolds, P. and Miller, B., 1992.
Klocke, B., 2004, Galbraith, J., 1982.
The number of the stages varies widely between three to more than five stages. Kazanjian, R.K. and Drazin, R., 1989, 1489.
Kazanjian, R.K. and Drazin, R., 1989, 1489.
Montanari, J.R., et al., n.y., 60.
Kazanjian, R.K. and Drazin, R., 1989; Klocke, B., 2004; Hansen, E.L. and Bird, B.J., 1997.
Hanks, S.H. and Chandler, G., 1994; Klocke, B., 2004, Montanari, J.R., et al., Torbert, W.R., 1974.
Kazanjian, R.K., 1988, 258.
Moore, W.L. and Tushman, M.L., 1982; Channon, D., 1973.
Greiner, L.E., 1972.
Hanks, S.H. and Chandler, G., 1994; Quinn, R.E. and Cacmeron, k., 1983.
Miller, D. and Friesen, P.H., 1984; Hansen, E.L. and Bird, B.J., 1997.
Kazanjian, R.K., 1988; Klocke, B., 2004.
Glaser, B.G. and Strauss, A.L., 1967.
For similar critiques refer to Tornatzky, L.G., et al., 1983; Hansen, E.L. and Bird, B.J., 1997; Miller, D., 1981.
Galbraith, J., 1982, 74. The employee numbers were added based on the author’s description.
Refer to chapter 6.2. Also refer to Müller, T.A., 2003; Klocke, B., 2004; Baier, W. and Pleschak, F., 1996.
Kazanjian, R.K., 1988, 279.
March, J.G., 1991; He, Z.L. and Wong, P.K., 2004; Rothaermel, F. and Deeds, D.L., 2004.
Klocke, B., 2004, 119.
Kazanjian, R.K., 1988, 264.
Kazanjian, R.K., 1988, 279.
Kazanjian, R.K., 1988, 276; Kazanjian, R.K. and Drazin, R., 1989, 1498; Hansen, E.L. and Bird, B.J., 1997, 111; Miller, D. and Friesen, P.H., 1984, 1161; Miller, D., 1981.
Kazanjian, R.K., 1988.
Shane, S. and Cable, D., 2002.
Roberts, E.B., 1991b.
Hisrich, R.D. and Peters, M.P., 2002.
Deakins, D. and Hussain, G., 1994; Hisrich, R.D. and Peters, M.P., 2002.
Cassar, G., 2004; Jain, B.A., 2001.
Penrose, E.T., 1996.
Penrose, E.T., 1996, 44.
Penrose, E.T., 1996, 45.
Penrose, E.T., 1996, 49.
Penrose, E.T., 1996, 45.
Penrose, E.T., 1996, 48.
Riess, S., 1998, 100; Penrose, E.T., 1996; Coase, R.H., 1937.
Barney, J., 1991; Wernerfelt, B., 1984; Peteraf, M.A., 1990; Dierickx, I. and Cool, K., 1989; Williams, J.R., 1992; Hall, R., 1992; Nelson, R.R. and Winter, D.G., 1982.
Barney, J., 1991, 101.
Barney, J., 1991, 101.
Gemünden, H.G. and Konrad, E.D., 2000; Walter, A. and Gemünden, H.G., 2002.
Peteraf, M.A., 1993; Also refer to Salomo, S., 2001.
Gemünden, H.G. and Konrad, E.D., 2000.
Penrose, E.T., 1996, 47. Penrose explicitly attributes “uniqueness” and “value” to the management-team which has gained experience from working within the firm. Penrose, E.T., 1996, 46.
Barney, J., 1991, 106; Hambrick, 1987.
Grant, R.M., 1996; Liebeskind, J.P., 1996.
Also refer to Spender, J.C., 1992.
Ricardo, D., 1926. See also to Liebeskind, J.P., 1996, 94–95.
Teece, D., J, et al., 1997; Grant, R.M., 1996; Liebeskind, J.P., 1996.
Teece, D., J and Pisano, G., 1994.
Tushman, M.L., et al., 1986.
Teece, D., J and Pisano, G., 1994.
Sweetland, S.R., 1996; Bowles, S. and Gintis, H., 1975; Cooper, A.C., et al., 1994, Pickett, L., 1998, 103.
While there is some discussion about accounting of human assets for internal and external purposes, so far these assets are included in accounting practices. Presently, investment in people and human resources expenses are negatively impacting the profit/loss statements. Flamholtz, E.G., et al., 2002; Abdel-khalik, R.A., 2003.
Pennings, J.M., et al., 1998, 426.
Becker, G.S., 1975, 17–20.
Becker, G.S., 1975, 33–40; Pennings, J.M., et al., 1998, 426.
Pennings, J.M., et al., 1998, 430; Brüderl, J., et al., 1992, 229; Becker, G.S., 1975, 161–251.
Dimov, D.P. and Shepherd, D.A., 2005; Watson, W.E., et al., 2003; Brüderl, J., et al., 1996, 43, Wanzenböck, H., 1998.
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Brüderl, J., et al., 1992, 228.
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Becker, G.S., 1975; Pennings, J.M., et al., 1998; Mincer, J., 1974.
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(2007). Theories regarding entrepreneurial and management competencies and the development of new technology-based firms. In: Competence of Top Management Teams and Success of New Technology-Based Firms. Gabler. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8350-5503-2_3
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