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Legal and Functional Perspective of Freight Forwarding in Multimodal Transport Chains

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Freight Forwarder's Intermediary Role in Multimodal Transport Chains

Part of the book series: Contributions to Management Science ((MANAGEMENT SC.))

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Abstract

Following authors like Palmhofer (1944, p. 8–9), Ullmann (1950, p. 18), Murr (1979, p. 1), Matthäi (1979, p. 4), Seiler (1981, p. 33) or Gass (1991, p. 15), freight forwarding as a special business can be traced to the Medieval Age. Up to this time, a merchant principally transported cargo overland by own means or vessels chartered directly from their owners. Of course, since the times of the Roman Empire, usually merchandise cargo in transit was always accompanied by some agent who was obliged to take care for the shipment and to act on behalf of the owning merchant, but such transport operations can be considered merely as being done on own account.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Stamm (1908, p. 1–2), Goerres (1909, pp. 7–8), Securius and Böning (1941, pp. 10–11), Palmhofer (1944, p. 80–86), Ullmann (1950, p. 13–18), Hald (1951, p. 11), Matthäi (1979, p. 4) or Gass (1991, pp. 14–15) with further reference.

  2. 2.

    See Goerres (1909, pp. 7–8), Vadnai (1921, pp. 29–30), Securius and Böning (1941, pp. 10–11), Ullmann (1950, p. 18), Hald (1951, pp. 11–12) or Gass (1991, pp. 15–16) with further reference.

  3. 3.

    Cf. Goerres (1909, pp. 9–11), Vadnai (1921, p. 30a-31a), Securius and Böning (1941, p. 10), Palmhofer (1944, p. 8–9), Ullmann (1950, pp. 19–22), Hald (1951, p. 12), Matthäi (1979, pp. 4–6), Seiler (1981, p. 33) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, p. 70).

  4. 4.

    See e.g. Wolters (1973, p. 31) or Seiler (1981, pp. 33–34).

  5. 5.

    Cf. Vadnai (1921, p. 30a–31), Securius and Böning (1941, pp. 10–11), Palmhofer (1944, p. 9), Ullmann (1950, p. 19–23), Hald (1951, pp. 12–13) or Matthäi (1979, p. 6). According to Goerres (1909, p. 10) or Vadnai (1921, p. 31), the “Stapelrecht” can be regarded as a privilege of commercial trade and the “Umschlagsrecht” as a privilege of cargo movement.

  6. 6.

    Cf. Goerres (1909, pp. 11–13), Vadnai (1921, p. 31a–32), Palmhofer (1944, pp. 9–10), Ullmann (1950, p. 23–24), Matthäi (1979, pp. 6–7), Seiler (1981, pp. 34–35) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, p. 70).

  7. 7.

    Cf. Vadnai (1921, p. 31a–33a), Palmhofer (1944, pp. 89–92), D’Amato and D’Amato (1977), Seiler (1981, pp. 34–35) or Gass (1991, pp. 16–17).

  8. 8.

    Cf. Goerres (1909, pp. 21–49), Vadnai (1921, p. 34), Ullmann (1950, pp. 28–49) and Wolters (1973, p. 27–28).

  9. 9.

    Stamm (1908, pp. 3–4), Goerres (1909, pp. 17–18), Palmhofer (1944, pp. 93–94), Ullmann (1950, pp. 31–32) or Gass (1999, pp. 17–20) trace German forwarding law back to the first general German commercial code called “Allgemeines Deutsches Handelsgesetzbuch” (ADHGB) of 1861 and remarked that the provisions there about freight forwarding were not altered when the HGB was set into force in 1897. But lacking political unity until the establishment of the German Reich in 1871, the ADHGB was adopted only by a fraction of all states in the German Union of that time so that it cannot be considered to be a proper commercial law concerning the whole German territory. For ease of exposition, in the following, the abbreviations HGB (“Deutsches Handelsgesetzbuch”) standing for German Commercial Code and UGB (“Österreichisches Handelsgesetzbuch”), recently renamed in “Unternehmensgesetzbuch” with “Handelsrecht-Änderungsgesetz” (BGBl. I No. 120/2005) standing for Austrian Commercial Code are used.

  10. 10.

    Cf. Kirchner (1950, p. 5), Hausmaninger (2000, p. 233) or Straube (2003, pp. 1280–1281).

  11. 11.

    For a more detailed discussion of the actual UGB see Straube (2003, pp. 1280–1574) or Krejci (2005, p. 368–419) with further references. In addition to this, the fifth book of HGB as well as the fifth book of UGB, contains provisions of national sea trade law in §§ 474–905 UGB, §§ 476–905 HGB and supplement to § 664 HGB.

  12. 12.

    Translation by the author.

  13. 13.

    Carriers by air are not explicitly mentioned here, because at the time of initial codification in the nineteenth century, no-one could think of transportation by air at all. But nowadays, § 407 UGB is regarded to be applicable for national air transport operations, too.

  14. 14.

    A full description of the actual provision in the HGB after 1998 are beyond the scope of this work. See Herber (1998), De la Motte (1998a), Gass (1999), Schauer (2001), Müglich (2002), Jaeger and Laudel (2003), Wieske (2003, pp. 39–65) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 85–148) for an overview and some commentary notes on the actual §§  407–475h HGB.

  15. 15.

    Translation by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Transportrecht e.V., see http://www.transportrecht.org/hgb\_4\_synopse.html.

  16. 16.

    According to Nickenig (1996, p. 92), the first groupage service dates back to 1877, where German railway companies introduced the “Reformtarif” with a differential tariff structure divided in express, part loads and wagon loads which allowed freight forwarders to consolidate small shipments for wagon loads.

  17. 17.

    See Krejci (2005, pp. 378–379) for more details.

  18. 18.

    Cf. Mayer (1933, pp. 20–21), Ullmann (1950, pp. 64–66) or Gass (1991, p. 37).

  19. 19.

    For further discussion, see e.g. Krejci (2005, pp. 369–370) for Austria and De la Motte (1998b) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 149–151) for Germany.

  20. 20.

    See Valder (2002), Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 73–95) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 149–175) for the ADSp 2003. Already in 1908, the Verein Deutscher Spediteure (VDS) passed the “Allgemeine Beförderungsbedingungen” (ABB), but these GT&C was in the following merely regarded as a non-obligatory recommendation by their member companies, see Esch (1923).

  21. 21.

    See Art. 2.1. ADSp 2003, translation by Verein Hamburger Spediteure e.V., see http://www.

  22. 22.

    Art. 2.2. and 2.5. ADSp 2003.

  23. 23.

    Art. 2.3. ADSp 2003.

  24. 24.

    Art. 2.4. ADSp 2003.

  25. 25.

    See Schindler (1998, 2003) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 108–114) for a brief overview and some comments.

  26. 26.

    Strictly speaking, the VBGL 2003 deviates from the provisions in the ADSp 2003 in two ways: There is a uniform liability for all tasks done by a freight forwarder and the transport insurance is only covered after a written order.

  27. 27.

    Cf. Mayer (1933, pp. 20–21) or Stern (1938, p. 54).

  28. 28.

    In the mean time, the AGBSp were abandoned in favour of the ADSp in 1939, see Ullmann (1950, p. 119–123). From time to time, the AÖSp were subject to some minor revisions, the last revision in 2002 was because of Austria joining the European Monetary Union. See Spera (2011, p. 76–81) for a brief overview.

  29. 29.

    See § 2a) and 2c) AÖSp.

  30. 30.

    See § 2b) AÖSp.

  31. 31.

    Cf. Valder (2002), Wieske (2002), Häusser and Abele (2003), Heuer (2003) or Lorenz (2005, p. 176–192).

  32. 32.

    For more international comparisons of forwarding law and/or definitions of freight forwarders in different countries see Matthäi (1979, pp. 28–38), Thaler (1990, pp. 92–96), Gass (1991, pp. 27–30, 67–72) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, p. 71).

  33. 33.

    See Vadnai (1921, p. 6), Kirchner (1950, p. 6), Tschudi (1975, p. 41) or Seiler (1981, pp. 21–22). Further, Guhl et al. (2000, pp. 588–603) or Foglar (2009) for a brief overview of legal provisions in the actual OR regarding commission agents, carriers and freight forwarders.

  34. 34.

    Cf. Tschudi (1975, pp. 34–36), Seiler (1981, pp. 27–30), Foglar (2009) or http://www.spedlogswiss.ch.

  35. 35.

    Cf. Ullmann (1950, pp. 30–31), Matthäi (1979, p. 36), Chevalier (1989), Thaler (1990, p. 94), Tetley (1992), Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 105–116), Ramberg (1998) or Victor-Granzer (2005).

  36. 36.

    Notably, as a commission agent, the forwarder is only liable for actual fault, but as a contracting carrier, his liability is extended to actual and third party fault in case of loss, damage or late delivery of cargo, see L 132–4 to 132–6 CdC.

  37. 37.

    See Gass (1991, p. 70), Wegdell (1996, pp. 171–239) or http://nordicfreight.org/engsida/model.htm.

  38. 38.

    Cf. Gass (1991, pp. 62–65), Benson et al. (1994, pp. 305–307), Triebel et al. (1995, pp. 153–159) or Ramberg (1998).

  39. 39.

    Cf. Gass (1991, p. 23) or Triebel et al. (1995, pp. 157–159).

  40. 40.

    Cf. Matthäi (1979, pp. 37–38), Thaler (1990, pp. 93–94) or Triebel et al. (1995, p. 157).

  41. 41.

    Matthäi (1979, p. 37) proposed to call a freight forwarder then “private carrier.” According to Benson et al. (1994, pp. 305–306), a “private carrier” is in opposition to a “common carrier” with the first acting only on basis of private “Conditions of Carriage” between them and their customers and the second providing carriage of cargo on a regular basis with full liability only limited to a few exceptions like Act of God, Act of the Queen’s enemies, inherent vice, fault or fraud of the consignor.

  42. 42.

    BIFA (2000, p. 1). By the way, terms like “freight forwarder” or “forwarding agent” are never mentioned in this GT&C. Instead of this, the term “company” as a BIFA member trading under the STC is used.

  43. 43.

    Cf. Barton and McGehee (1942), D’Amato and D’Amato (1977), Murr (1979, pp. 3–10), Rahman (1989, pp. 15–18), Dempsey (2000) or Kehagiaras (2004).

  44. 44.

    C.f. Murr (1979, pp. 11–13, 23–55).

  45. 45.

    See Barton and McGehee (1942), D’Amato and D’Amato (1977), Murr (1979, pp. 23–55), Brown (1984b), Crum (1985), Morash (1986, 1987), Hill (1988), Sherwood and Burns (1992), Johnson and Schneider (1995a), Wood et al. (1995, p. 116), Wood and Johnson (1996, pp. 264–267), Lambert and Stock (1999, pp. 180–185), Taylor and Jackson (2000) or Dempsey (2000). Further see the actual provisions in the “Code of Federal Regulations” (CoFR), especially 49 CoFR, Chap. 139, Sect. 13901–12908 about registration of motor carriers, water carriers, brokers and freight forwarders.

  46. 46.

    Cf. Thomchick et al. (2004, p. 44) or Passas and Jones (2007). Both are still subject to a strict licensing system according to 46 CoFR, Chap. 36, Sect. 1718 (ocean transportation intermediaries) and 19 CoFR, Chap. 4, Sect. 1641 (customs-house brokers). See Hill (1988), Sherwood and Burns (1992), Wood et al. (1995, pp. 115–116), Lambert and Stock (1999, pp. 205–207), Clott (2000), Thorby (2001a) or Kehagiaras (2004) for more information about US-based OTIs and NVOCCs.

  47. 47.

    According to their survey from 2000, 81.0% of their responding international freight forwarders act as customs-house brokers and 57.0% as NVOCCs with half of the respondents doing both. Further, 64.7% of their revenues are from sea freight and 34.4% from air freight operations.

  48. 48.

    See e.g. http://www.cargolaw.com/guides\_usingterms.html.

  49. 49.

    See Ramberg (1998, 2000) with further comments.

  50. 50.

    This holds likely in the same manner for customs brokerage services, where a freight forwarder acts as an agent, when he clears goods at customs house on behalf of his principal on his account. Doing this special service, he is named e.g. “Zollspediteur” or “Grenzspediteur” in Germany and Austria, “transitaire agrée en douance” or “commissionaire agrée en douance” in France, “clearance forwarder” in the United Kingdom and “customs-house broker” in the United States, see Gass (1991, p. 59a-67).

  51. 51.

    See Klippel (2000) or Branch (2000, pp. 94–95). In the United States, NVOs are usually called NVOCCs or OTIs which are terms originating from the US-American maritime commercial law, see Sect. 2.1.2.

  52. 52.

    Cf. Mittendorf and Oelfke (1974, pp. 24–25).

  53. 53.

    Cf. Mittendorf and Oelfke (1974, pp. 232–234), Trappe (1995), Puttfarken (1997, pp. 248–250) or Herber (1999, pp. 168–171).

  54. 54.

    In Germany and Austria, a shipping agent is legally defined as an agent according to §§ 84–92 HGB or the Austrian “Handelsvertretergesetz” (HVertG) of 1993. In common law countries, agents are acting on basis of the Law of Agency, but with (86/653/EEC), the United Kingdom and Ireland have to enact now a uniform law of agency on the national level, see Triebel et al. (1995, pp. 166–178). Conversely, the third party might also be an agent acting on behalf of a shipper or consignor based on an agency contract. But this seems actually to be a very rare practice, only Spera (2011, pp. 81–82) referred to such a “Transportagent” in the case of Austria and Brown (1984b), Morash (1986) or Johnson and Schneider (1995b) described “shippers agents” or “shipping associations” as intermediaries working for shippers in railway piggybacking as well as other transport operations in the United States on a national scale.

  55. 55.

    Cf. Svendsen (1958, pp. 298–306), Mittendorf and Oelfke (1974, pp. 228–232), Puttfarken (1997, p. 248), Branch (1998, p. 212–217) or Herber (1999, pp. 169–171). Other terms are “loading broker,” “discharging broker” or “air freight broker.” Legal provisions for this business of brokerage are §§ 93–104 HGB for Germany and the “Maklergesetz” (MaklerG) of 1996 in the case of Austria. According to Triebel et al. (1995, pp. 179–180) or Trappe (1995, p. 321), it is worth to remark, that in common law countries, a “broker” is not the same as a “Makler” defined by German or Austrian law. But in the context of this work, such a distinction is not drawn so that in the following, the term “broker” is used to describe a “Makler” in the German or Austrian sense.

  56. 56.

    Cf. FIATA (1975, p. 4), Schumacher (1987a, p. 131), Thaler (1990, pp. 83–84), Danzas Lotse (2002, p. 146), Lorenz (2005, p. 57) or Dischinger et al. (2005, p. 23).

  57. 57.

    Cf. FIATA (1975), the words in brackets are added by the author.

  58. 58.

    Following DSLV (2005, p. 2), freight forwarding companies in Germany are heavily engaged in customs brokerage, covering 70% of all import and 90% of all export movements. Furthermore, 75% of all EU transit procedures are issued by them, too. See Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 204–226) for a brief overview of German and Austrian external trade law, the European Customs Code and export, import and customs procedures therein regulated in the case of Germany and Austria.

  59. 59.

    See Murr (1979, pp. 261–266) or the provisions in 19 CoFR, Chap. 4, Sect. 1641 for the customs brokerage licensing system in the United States.

  60. 60.

    See Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 193–200) for a brief description of the paperwork needed for cross-border shipments and further references.

  61. 61.

    Of course, arrangement of loading of cargo at the point of departure and unloading it at the point of destination by a freight forwarder is usually restricted to some industrial high-and-heavy goods or removal operations, where a consignor or consignee is not able to load or unload shipments by own means.

  62. 62.

    See Sect. 3.3.4 for a more detailed treatment.

  63. 63.

    Cf. Pfohl (2003, pp. 285–287).

  64. 64.

    This is in line with  FIATA (2004) where freight forwarding and logistic services together were defined as “[...] services of any kind relating to the carriage (performed by single mode or multimodal transport means), consolidation, storage, handling, packing or distribution of the Goods as well as ancillary and advisory services in connection therewith, including but not limited to customs and fiscal matters, declaring the Goods for official purposes, procuring insurance of the Goods and collecting or procuring payment or documents relating to the Goods. Freight Forwarding Services also include logistical services with modern information and communication technology in connection with the carriage, handling or storage of the Goods, and de facto total supply chain management. These services can be tailored to meet the flexible application of the services provided.”

  65. 65.

    See Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 245–251), Wieske (2003, pp. 123–26), Lorenz (2005, pp. 70–73), Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 322–323), Spera (2011, pp. 83–97) or http://www.vhsp{}.spediteure.de/fiata.htm for a brief description of these FIATA forwarder documents of title.

  66. 66.

    Cf. Vadnai (1921, pp. 59–60), Eller (1996) or Lorenz (2004, pp. 308–315).

  67. 67.

    In former times, cartage services for railway companies were at the core of business for many freight forwarders. But today, they play a diminishing role, because of more and more railway companies like the Deutsche Bahn AG gave up the provision of rail-based groupage services.

  68. 68.

    Cf. Vadnai (1921, pp. 59–63), Schlichting (1931, pp. 56–58), Mayer (1933, p. 13), Ullmann (1950, pp. 106–107), Tschudi (1975, pp. 13–15) or Seiler (1981, p. 85).

  69. 69.

    At this time, the freight forwarding business as well as the rest of the transportation industry was subject to a strict regulatory tariff framework, see Ohling (1950, pp. 200–201), Ullmann (1950, pp. 75–85).

  70. 70.

    Cf. Fischer et al. (1930, p. 281), Schlichting (1931, pp. 3–4), Mayer (1933, p. 26), Securius and Böning (1941, p. 13), Ullmann (1950, p. 73), Kirchner (1950, pp. 8–10), Hald (1951, pp. 15–16), Rössger (1960, pp. 48–50), Mittendorf and Oelfke (1974, p. 27), Seiler (1981, pp. 87–89), Matthäi (1985, pp. 27–6), Schumacher (1987a, p. 141), Chevalier (1989), Thaler (1990, pp. 130–143), Zöllner (1990, pp. 44–67), Diederich (2000), Lucke et al. (2001, p. 267) or Pfohl (2003, p. 288).

  71. 71.

    Cf. Securius and Böning (1941, p. 12), Seiler (1981, p. 87), Matthäi (1985, p. 27), Chevalier (1989), Gass (1991, p. 64), Triebel et al. (1995, pp. 157–158), Lucke et al. (2001, p. 267), Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 66–68) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 63–66).

  72. 72.

    Cf. Mayer (1933, p. 26), Seiler (1981, p. 88) or Matthäi (1985, p. 27) or Lorenz (2005, p. 66–67).

  73. 73.

    Cf. Matthäi (1991), Wolf (2000a,b) or Sect. 2.2.4.2.

  74. 74.

    Cf. Chevalier (1989), Wood and Johnson (1996, p. 522).

  75. 75.

    Cf. Lorenz (2005, p. 67).

  76. 76.

    Cf. Schlichting (1931, p. 3), Securius and Böning (1941, p. 12), Matthäi (1985, p. 27), Chevalier (1989), Lucke et al. (2001, p. 267) or Lorenz (2005, p. 65).

  77. 77.

    Cf. Schlichting (1931, pp. 3–4), Securius and Böning (1941, pp. 60–69), Mittendorf and Oelfke (1974, p. 241), Matthäi (1985, p. 27), Müglich (2002, pp. 6–7) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 263–267). The abbreviations “FOB” and “CIF” are standing for the terms of sales “free-on-board” and “cost-insurance-freight” as defined in the “International Commercial Terms” (INCOTERMs) by the “International Chamber of Commerce” (ICC).

  78. 78.

    Cf. Seiler (1981, pp. 88–89), Matthäi (1985, p. 27) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 63–65).

  79. 79.

    Cf. Fischer et al. (1930, pp. 301–303), Mayer (1933, p. 26), Matthäi (1985, p. 27), Lucke et al. (2001, p. 267).

  80. 80.

    Cf. Fischer et al. (1930, pp. 303–306), Mayer (1933, pp. 40–41), Charissé (2000) or Lorenz (2005, p. 67).

  81. 81.

    The cargo segment of “white goods” consists of washing machines, stoves, teller machines or other kitchen appliances whereas “brown goods” are television sets or other multimedia devices.

  82. 82.

    Cf. Obergfell and Senghas (2000).

  83. 83.

    With the stepwise deregulation of postal markets, privatization and international expansion of some national post offices, this small shipment transport segment is now often named courier, express and postal services with parcel services being a part of the express services, see http://www.m-r-u.de.

  84. 84.

    Cf. Schumacher (1987a) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 537–602).

  85. 85.

    See Sect. 3.3.4.

  86. 86.

    Similar studies were conducted by the Wirtschaftskammer Österreich, Fachverband der Spediteure, in 1993 and 1998 with the last survey reaching a very low response rate so not more than some figures were made officially. According to the first survey, WIFI (1993, p. 12), Austrian freight forwarders are mostly engaged in international freight forwarding (75%), followed by warehousing (55%), customs brokerage (53%), cartage service (49%), national freight forwarding (44%), long distance road transport by own means (37%), handling of hazardous materials (36%), combined transports (30%), air cargo forwarding (27%), removal agency and/or transport of new furniture (22%), parcel and express service (22%), groupage service (22%) and freight forwarding in inland navigation (8%). Apart from long distance road transport operations by own means, the fields of activity of them seem be quite similar in comparison to the German figures from 2000 and 2005.

  87. 87.

    Both surveys can be regarded as representative for the German freight forwarding business as a whole as BSL (2000) reported a sample size of 3,300 member companies with a response rate of approximately 50% and DSLV (2005) a sample size of 2,900 with a response rate of approximately 33%.

  88. 88.

    Of course, some of these freight forwarders are engaged in both fields and some of the respondents mentioning international freight forwarding as a their focus may subsume haulage by road, sea and air under this term, so that the real amount of freight forwarders engaged in such field of international operations seems to be rather underestimated as e.g. Dehn (1987, pp. 17–20) concluded. The same might be true in the case of Austrian freight forwarders, where 75% of them are engaged in international freight forwarding and 27% in air cargo forwarding with sea cargo operations not asked for, see WIFI (1993, p. 12).

  89. 89.

    Cf. Morash (1986, pp. 91–95), Kleer (1991, pp. 9–15), Bowersox and Cooper (1992, pp. 96–98), Rosenbloom (1999, pp. 100–101) or Pfohl (2003, pp. 221–224).

  90. 90.

    Originally, Vaile et al. (1952, pp. 113–129) considered that a marketing channel consists of eight different forms of flows, which can be grouped in (1) forward flows of negotiation, ownership and physical possession, (2) backward flows of ordering and payment and (3) two-way flows of information, financing and risking. Later on, this classification was step by step updated with renaming physical possession flows in physical distribution or logistics flows and highlighting promotional tasks as the most important component of information flows, see e.g. Stern and El-Ansary (1992, pp. 11–13) or Rosenbloom (1991, pp. 12–15, 1995, pp. 147–149, 1999, pp. 107–108). Another development was, that these flows in a marketing channel were considered to be channels, too, see e.g. Stern and El-Ansary (1992, p. 14). This notion was adapted by most authors later on like Gompf (1994, p. 11), Johnson and Wood (1996, pp. 30–35) or Trost (1999, pp. 66–67), so that in contemporary marketing channel literature, always different channels are discussed instead of different flows. Recently, Taylor and Jackson (2000) employed this marketing channel methodology to describe intermodal channels on a national scale.

  91. 91.

    Translation by the author. DIN is an abbreviation for “Deutsches Institut für Normung,” the German Institute for Standardization which develops standards and technical rules. See Gompf (1994, p. 7), Michaletz (1994, pp. 37–39), Isermann (1995, pp. 604–605), Köberlein (1997, p. 192) or Wolf (2000d) for critical comments on this useful but rather wide definition.

  92. 92.

    See Michaletz (1994, pp. 37–39) or Isermann (1995) for a similar description and Gompf (1994, pp. 101–105) for further discussion concering the air cargo industry.

  93. 93.

    See Grandjot (2002, p. 126) or Schüller (2003, pp. 89–156) with the last one developing a model framework for airline-driven supply chains.

  94. 94.

    Notably, this distinction is exactly drawn in the legal provisions of the HGB or UGB as well as their corresponding GT&Cs as discussed in Sect. 2.1.1.

  95. 95.

    The very difference between these two types of (de)consolidation is, that the first can be regarded as being transport-related and is done on freight forwarder’s account and the second is not necessarily transport-related but performed on behalf and account of a shipper or consignee.

  96. 96.

    Thinking of storage as a movement of shipments in time without moving them physically, there is no need to add this term explicitly.

  97. 97.

    See Michaletz (1994, p. 39), Trost (1999, p. 70), Wolf (2000d), Pfohl (2003, pp. 164–166) or Kummer (2006, pp. 47–50) for a similar classification.

  98. 98.

    Cf. Pirath (1934, p. 160), Wolf (2000b) or Pfohl (2003, p. 164).

  99. 99.

    Cf. Wolf (2000d) or Pfohl (2003, p. 164).

  100. 100.

    Cf. Pirath (1934, p. 160), Wolf (2000b), Pfohl (2003, p. 164) or Kummer (2006, p. 47).

  101. 101.

    Cf. Pirath (1934, p. 160), Beplat (1970, pp. 29–30), Jennings and Holcomb (1996).

  102. 102.

    Cf. Eurostat (2003, p. 103) or Kummer (2006, p. 48).

  103. 103.

    See Köberlein (1997, p. 98), Seidelmann (2000b), Lucke et al. (2001, pp. 287–293) and Pfohl (2003, p. 173–178) with the last one calling them shortly “piggy-back” and “container.” According e.g. to Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 24–25), Aberle (2003, p. 22) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 606–609) another distinction can be drawn between “accompanied” and “unaccompanied” transports, with the last one as a more common practice in multimodal transports. Further, unit loads can be distinguished according to handling technologies employed during transhipment, like lift-on/lift-off, roll-on/roll-off, swim-in/swim-out, or truck-to-truck (see Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 22–27), Trost (1999, p. 70) or Seidelmann (2000b)).

  104. 104.

    See Slack (1998, p. 263), Wolf (2000d), Lucke et al. (2001, pp. 251–254), UN/ECE (2001, p. 16–17) or Eurostat (2003, p. 103) for quite similar definitions. Furthermore, it is worth to mention that an alternative term for “unimodal” might be also “intramodal,” stressing on the fact that changes in means of transport are done within one mode of transport. But this term is not used in literature.

  105. 105.

    Especially among German-speaking authors, the term “combined transport” is often unnecessarily restricted to mainly road-rail transport operations, see e.g. Linden (1966, p. 822) or Aberle (2003, p. 21–22) and short statements by Slack (1998, pp. 263–264) or Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 5–6). But in this piece of work, it is used in the original sense defined as a transport of a unit load combining at least two means of transport (or better say a passive mean of transport carried by an active one) and employing one or more modes of transport, see Beplat (1970, p. 31), Köberlein (1997, pp. 97–98). Seidelmann (2000b) or Eurostat (2003, p. 103).

  106. 106.

    Cf. Müller-Feldhammer (1996, p. 4), Wolf (2000d) or Eurostat (2003, p. 103).

  107. 107.

    More recent similar description can be found in Michaletz (1994, pp. 39–40), Trost (1999, pp. 67–68) or Wolf (2000d). Further this is also valid in the case of a logistic chain, see Beplat (1970, p. 18).

  108. 108.

    Originally, Beplat (1970, pp. 18–20) did not think of handling processes at the point of departure or destination being part of a transport chain. Therefore, he got to the conclusion, that direct transports cannot be analyzed in this way. Assuming, that these two endpoints are part of a transport chain allows to define the smallest form of a functional transport chain to be loading a shipment at a source, unloading it at a sink with a transport from source to sink in between, see Köberlein (1997, p. 192) with a similar explanation.

  109. 109.

    Beplat (1970, p. 19) claimed, that these persons or institutions must be independent from each other. But thinking of the mirad of cooperative agreements and dependencies occuring in contemporary transport as well as logistic chains, this notion of independency seems to be rather too restrictive and therefore it was dropped.

  110. 110.

    See e.g. Pfohl (2003, pp. 154–162) for a more general description of unitization and containerization.

  111. 111.

    Cf. Fischer et al. (1930, pp. 218–223), Philipp (1980, pp. 21–23), Richter (1985, p. 4), Stopford (2000, pp. 338–340) or Fleming (2002, p. 370). According to Stopford (2000, p. 343) a liner service is “a fleet of ships, with a common ownership or management, which provide a fixed service, at regular intervals, between named ports, and offer transport to any goods in the catchment area served by those ports and ready for transit by their sailing dates. A fixed itinerary, inclusion in a regular service, and the obligation to accept cargo from all comers and to sail, whether filled or not, on the date fixed by a published schedule are what distinguish the liner from a tramp.”

  112. 112.

    Cf. Kirschnick (1969, pp. 133–134), Rath (1973, p. 8), Burg (1975, pp. 45–57) or Stopford (2000, p. 4).

  113. 113.

    Following Seidelmann (1969, p. 22) or Burg (1975, pp. 45–57). To Käselau (1971, pp. 10–11), Zinnecker (1972, pp. 64–65), Berg (1975, pp. 53–57), major problem fields of this truck-to-truck handling were protection of goods, through transports under bond and a lack of standardization in unit load dimensions. In addition to this, pallets needed multiple mechanical handling at each point of interchange like from inland carrier to shed, from shed to quay, from quay to ship and onboard a ship, too. So it can be regarded only as a temporary solution between traditional break bulk operations and containerization of shipments in the case of the ocean shipping industry.

  114. 114.

    The term “container” can be tracked back to “continere” (Lat.) which simply means to enclose or surround something, see Rackwitz (1969, p. 7).

  115. 115.

    See Fischer et al. (1930, pp. 304–205), Mayer (1933, pp. 39–40), Mayercordt (1958, pp. 7–13 and 44–46), Rackwitz (1969:4–7), Seidelmann (1969, pp. 14–17), Baumöller (1970, pp. 8–16), Beplat (1970, p. 77), Burg (1975:66–69), Richter (1985, pp. 5–6), Michaletz (1994, pp. 64–66), Wood et al. (1995, pp. 164–165), Wood and Johnson (1996:246), Exler (1996, p. 40), Slack (1998, pp. 264–265) or Fleming (2003:74–75) with further references. Beplat (1970, pp. 77–83) e.g. supports this view dividing the history of containerization in four subsequent phases: (1) unsystematical application long before World War I, (2) systematical military application beginning with World War I, (3) systematical intra-continental application in the United States after 1956 and (4) systematical inter-continental application of containers after 1966. Rath (1973, pp. 5–6) even dates the early beginnings of containerization back to the time of the Roman Empire, where cages with wild beasts were transported as unit loads in an intermodal manner from Africa to the Circus Maximus in Rome.

  116. 116.

    Cf. Seidelmann (1969, p. 18), Beplat (1970, pp. 77–79), Rath (1973, pp. 26–31), Burg (1975, p. 111–114), Michaletz (1994, pp. 65–66), Talley (2000) or Levinson (2006).

  117. 117.

    Cf. Rackwitz (1969, p. 11), Seidelmann (1969, pp. 18–19), Beplat (1970, pp. 79–80), Burg (1975, p. 114–115), Exler (1996, pp. 40–41), Stopford (2000, p. 341) or Talley (2000), or Levinson (2006).

  118. 118.

    Of course, other modern handling methods like roll-on/roll-off for rolling cargo and swim-on/swim-off for bulky shipments were developed at that time, too. But being only interesting for nice markets of breakbulk cargo or ’neo-bulks’, they had a minor impact on ocean shipping industry as a whole, see Kirschnick (1969, pp. 131–133), Käselau (1971, pp. 14–18), Williams (1973), Gilman (1977) or Gürsel (1996, pp. 29–41).

  119. 119.

    Cf. Stopford (2000, pp. 340–342).

  120. 120.

    ‘ISO’ is an acronym for the “International Standardization Organization.” See Rackwitz (1969, pp. 94–105), Seidelmann (1969, pp. 22–34), Käselau (1971, p. 12), Rath (1973, pp. 49–67), Burg (1975, pp. 111–125), Michaletz (1994, pp. 54–63), Benson et al. (1994, pp. 204–206), Gürsel (1996, pp. 21–29), Hebeler (1998), Branch (2000, pp. 71–79), Seidelmann (2000a), Pumpe (2000, pp. 5–11) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 200–203) for further details about this ISO-standardization of containers.

  121. 121.

    Notably, the US–American pioneers in container shipping used non-ISO-standard containers like the Sea-Land-Container with a length of 35’ and the Matson-Navigation-Container with a length of 24’, see Seidelmann (1969, p. 23), Rackwitz (1969, p. 101), Baumöller (1970, p. 5), Rath (1973, p. 37) or Michaletz (1994, p. 66). In addition to the ISO-Norm 668, further important specifications for containers can be found in ISO-Norms 1496 and 6346.

  122. 122.

    See Hebeler (1998) or Pfohl (2003, pp. 158–159) with further comments.

  123. 123.

    Cf. Benson et al. (1994, p. 202), Slack (1998, pp. 264–265), Seidelmann (2000b) or Fleming (2002, pp. 73–74). Branch (2000, pp. 94–100) used the term “multi-modalism” instead of intermodality, but his conclusions are likely the same. To him, “multi-modalism is the process of providing a door-to-door or warehouse-to-warehouse service to the shipper which embraces two or more forms of transport, and involves the merchandise being conveyed in a unitized form in the same unit througout transit” (Branch (2000, p. 94)).

  124. 124.

    Cf. Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 199–200).

  125. 125.

    Cf. Wolf (2000b,c) or Biebig et al. (2004, pp. 247–261). According to Biebig et al. (2004, pp. 252–256), there are many variants of MTO, including both non-carrier MTOs like freight forwarders or shipping agents and carrier MTOs like shipping companies, road hauliers or railway companies.

  126. 126.

    See Biebig et al. (2004, pp. 263–266) about pricing in multimodal transport chains.

  127. 127.

    Cf. Müller-Feldhammer (1994, p. 273), Puttfarken (1997, p. 180), Asariotis et al. (1999, pp. 21–22), Spera (2002, pp. 241–248) or Clarke (2002, p. 74).

  128. 128.

    As a first attempt in this direction, the ICC issued “Uniform Rules for a Combined Transport Document” (ICC-Publication No.273) in 1973, which were revised in 1975 with ICC-Publication No.298 and replaced by the “UNCTAD/ICC Model Rules for Multimodal Transport Documents” (ICC-Publication No.481) in 1992, see Müller-Feldhammer (1994, 1996:267–274), Asariotis et al. (1999, pp. 21–25), Wolf (2000a,c), Clarke (2002, pp. 74–80) or Biebig et al. (2004, pp. 259–261). Further, all these works have been incorportated in the GT&Cs for the “FIATA Multimodal Transport Bill of Lading” of 1992 replacing the “FIATA Combined Transport Bill of Lading” of 1970 and influenced the “FIATA Model Rules for Freight Forwarding Services” of 1996, see Müller-Feldhammer (1994, pp. 272–273) or Ramberg (2000).

  129. 129.

    See Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 99–105) or Asariotis et al. (1999, pp. 23–24). In the case of Germany, § 452 HGB gives legal provisions for carriage of goods using various modes of transport on the basis of a single contract of carriage, but their applicability to multimodal transport chains including a leg by sea is more and more questioned by authors like Rabe (2000), Blettgen (2001), Teutsch (2001) or Drews (2003).

  130. 130.

    See Baumöller (1970, pp. 71–78), Käselau (1971, pp. 12–14), Rath (1973, pp. 8–9), Benson et al. (1994, p. 211–214), Slack (1998, pp. 273–274), Böhme (2000c) or Levinson (2006) with further references.

  131. 131.

    Cf. Slack (1998, pp. 267–268) or Peters (2001, pp. 9–10). Further, AXS-Alphaliner (2010) see a rise in the cellular container ship fleet above 7,500 TEU from 272 (31/12/2009) to 540 until 31/12/2013 of which 202 alone have a capacity of more than 10,000 TEU (projections based on orderbook as of 01/11/2010 assuming that no ships are deleted after this date).

  132. 132.

    See Stopford (2002) for a general overview for this and the following.

  133. 133.

    See Salzen (2000), Pumpe (2000, pp. 54–59), Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 438–442), Kummer et al. (2010, p. 340–343), http://www.dakosy.deorhttp://www.dbh.de.

  134. 134.

    See Gudmundsson and Walczuck (1999) or Dautel (2000) with further references.

  135. 135.

    Cf. Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 339–340).

  136. 136.

    Cf. Hellberg and Sannes (1991), Heaver (1992), Carr and Crum (1995), Briggs (1997) or Thorby (1997).

  137. 137.

    Cf. Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 222–226).

  138. 138.

    See Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 248–251) with further references.

  139. 139.

    Cf. Svendsen (1958, pp. 334–336), Philipp (1980, pp. 5–7), Scheibe (1980, pp. 58–59), Stopford (2000, pp. 348–349) or Sjostrom (2004).

  140. 140.

    Cf. Svendsen (1958, p. 336), Philipp (1980, p. 5), Scheibe (1980, p. 58), Brooks et al. (1993, p. 222), Wood et al. (1995, pp. 106–108), Branch (1998, p. 453), Böhme (2000d), Stopford (2000, p. 349), Fleming (2002, p. 380) or Sjostrom (2004).

  141. 141.

    Cf. Svendsen (1958, pp. 338–348), Geuther (1990, pp. 29–31), Ordemann (1996, pp. 47–49), Böhme (2000c) or Biebig et al. (2004, pp. 217–219).

  142. 142.

    Cf. Rosenthal (1950, pp. 39–51), Wood et al. (108–116), Clarke (1997), Böhme (2000d), Stopford (2000, pp. 349–351) or Sheppard and Seidman (2001:356–358).

  143. 143.

    Cf. Philipp (1980, pp. 9–16), Franck and Bunel (1991), Brooks et al. (1993, pp. 228–231), Slack et al. (1996, pp. 289–290), Böhme (2000a, pp. 13–14, 2000d), Sheppard and Seidman (2001, p. 358–360), Reitzes and Sheran (2002), Biebig et al. (2004, pp. 221–223), Dinger (2004) and Benacchio et al. (2007).

  144. 144.

    See Czerny and Mitusch (2005), Schmidt (2007), Benacchio et al. (2007) or http://ec.europa.eu/comm/competition/antitrust/legislation/maritime.

  145. 145.

    Cf. Slack et al. (1996, p. 291), Odrich (1998, pp. 81–83), Stopford (2000, pp. 376–378), Böhme (2000a, pp. 65–66), DVB (2002, p. 61) or Panayides and Gong (2002). Almost all of the pioneering shipping companies in container shipping of the late 1960s like Sea-Land Service, United States Lines, Moore Mc Cormack Lines or American Export Isbrandsten Lines did not survive.

  146. 146.

    Cf. Burg (1975, pp. 126–130), Richter (1985, pp. 98–117), Geuther (1990, pp. 28–35), Brooks et al. (1993, p. 223–228), Ordemann (1996, pp. 45–73), Slack et al. (1996, pp. 291–292), Clarke (1997, pp. 22–23), Slack (1998, pp. 272–273), Böhme (2000d), Sheppard and Seidman (2001), Peters (2001, pp. 8–9), Ewert (2006) or Herrebosch (2008).

  147. 147.

    See Rath (1973, pp. 37–40), Scheibe (1980, pp. 74–85), Richter (1985, pp. 100–117), Kindleberger (1993, p. 172–173), Brooks et al. (1993, pp. 223–227), Ordemann (1996, pp. 65–67), Branch (1998, p. 454–455) or Sheppard and Seidman (2001, pp. 352–356). The most prominent consortia is Atlantic Container Lines (ACL) established in 1965 (now part of the Grimaldi Group), see Burg (1975, pp. 127–128). Other consortia founded at this time were Overseas Container Limited (OCL), Associated Container Transportation (ACT) or  HAPAG-LLOYD Container Linien (now Hapag-Lloyd), see Seidelmann (1969, pp. 54–56) or Rath (1973, pp. 38–40).

  148. 148.

    Cf. Evangelista and Morvillo (1999, pp. 30–32) or Sheppard and Seidman (2001, pp. 353–355).

  149. 149.

    Cf. Stopford (2000, pp. 377–378), Heaver et al. (2001, p. 294), Slack et al. (2002), DVB (2002, p. 62), Midoro et al. (2005, pp. 96–101) or Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 296–297).

  150. 150.

    Cf. Schäffer (2003, pp. 377–379).

  151. 151.

    Cf. Berendt (1961, pp. 194–1995), Buchwald (1973, pp. 54–55) or Schäffer (2003, p. 379).

  152. 152.

    Cf. Maaß(1927:81–85), Stahlberg (1931, pp. 46–50), Kreuter (1931, p. 11), Berendt (1961, p. 30–32), Buchwald (1973, p. 53), Kehrberger (1996) or Lorenz (2005, p. 505).

  153. 153.

    Cf. Berendt (1961, pp. 198–199), Buchwald (1973, pp. 55–60), Kehrberger (1996), Opgenhoff (1997, p. 33), Grandjot (2002, pp. 55–56), Schäffer (2003) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 500–501).

  154. 154.

    Cf. Berendt (1961, pp. 75–82), Buchwald (1973, pp. 79–85), Kehrberger (1996), Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 33–34), Grandjot (2002, pp. 57–59) or Lorenz (2005, p. 505).

  155. 155.

    Cf. Kehrberger (1996), Branch (2000, pp. 160–174), Jaeger and Laudel (2003:467–268) or Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 303–304).

  156. 156.

    Cf. Wood et al. (1995, pp. 148–151), Wood and Johnson (1996, p. 546), Pfohl (2003, p. 351) or Schüller (2003, p. 13). Further, see Berendt (1961, pp. 74–80), Kehrberger (1996), Opgenhoff (1997, p. 34–37) or Lorenz (2005:505–517) for a more elaborated overview of the IATA.

  157. 157.

    Actually, the TACT is subject to a block exemption rule according to Regulation (EC) 487/2009 which demands a free formation of prices within EC and EFTA, see e.g. Spera (2011, p. 254).

  158. 158.

    Cf. Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 34–35), Becker (1999, pp. 45–50), Bertsch (2000a), Grandjot (2002, p. 153–158), Schüller (2003, pp. 17–19), Shaw (2004, pp. 189–192) or Spera (2011, p. 254–257).

  159. 159.

    Cf. Berendt (1961, pp. 133–134), Kehrberger (1996), Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 35–37), Grandjot (2002, p. 58–59) or Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 338–339).

  160. 160.

    Cf. Berendt (1961, pp. 138–142), Göpfert (1994), Kehrberger (1996), Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 42–44), Albers (2000, pp. 35–43), DVB (2001, p. 26), Grandjot (2002, pp. 106–114) or Kummer et al. (2010, p. 311–313).

  161. 161.

    See DVB (2001, pp. 26–27), DVB (2002, pp. 48–49) and Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 312–313) with further references. In the meantime, the WOW cargo alliance was terminated by Lufthansa Cargo.

  162. 162.

    ‘SAS’ is the abbreviation for “Scandinavian Airlines System,” an inter-Scandinavian airline consortia.

  163. 163.

    ’Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij’ (KLM) – or better say the Royal Dutch Airlines – merged recently with Air France with the latter in a leadership role in this joint company.

  164. 164.

    Wells (1999, p. 364), considered the first air cargo shipment to be five bolts of silk cloth strapped onto the passenger seat of a plane of from Dayton to Columbus, where a department store wanted to sell strips of the cloth as mementos of “the first air shipment.” Further, Wells (1999, p. 364) reported about a sack of mail transported from Albany to New York City for the Post Office Department in 1910, whereas Puffer (1949) referred to first experiments in air-mail services between Nassau Boulevard, Long Island, New York and Mineola conducted in 1911, Wood et al. (1995, pp. 127–128) saw the first occurence of an air freight transport 1911 in India where 6.500 pieces of mail were carried on distance of 5 miles and Grandjot (2000) dated it back to 1911, too, but failed to give more information about.

  165. 165.

    Cf. Maaß(1927:8–71 and 95–107), Schenk (1930, pp. 75–124), Stahlberg (1931, pp. 14–36 and 86–105), Kreuter (1931, pp. 7–14), Ulderup (1935, pp. 14–74 and 101–146), Ziegler (1938, pp. 50–56), Maetz (1937, p. 12–22), Rosenthal (1950, pp. 419–420), Berendt (1961, pp. 12–23 and 34–47), Buchwald (1973, p. 18–21), Graham (1995, pp. 10–12), Wood et al. (1995, pp. 128–131) or Wells (1999, p. 35–47).

  166. 166.

    Cf. Maetz (1937, pp. 39–43), Ziegler (1938, pp. 56–60) or Lorenz (2005, p. 495).

  167. 167.

    Cf. Berendt (1961, pp. 74–63), Buchwald (1973, pp. 22–27), Wood et al. (1995, p. 131), Wells (1999, p. 48–51) or Lorenz (2005, p. 495).

  168. 168.

    Cf. Berendt (1961, pp. 214–218), Heinrich (1966, pp. 92–140), Krebs (1974, pp. 96–100), Graham (1995, p. 12–14), Wells (1999, pp. 51–54) or Fricke and Dussoye (2000).

  169. 169.

    See Buchwald (1973, pp. 181–201), Burg (1975, pp. 196–198), Wood et al. (1995, pp. 136–139), DVB (2001, pp. 15–19), Lorenz (2003, pp. 505–506), Sjögren (2004) or Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 314–315) with further references.

  170. 170.

    Cf. Seidelmann (1971, pp. 96–99), Ashford et al. (1997, pp. 293–304) or Shaw (1999, p. 141).

  171. 171.

    Cf. Seidelmann (1969, pp. 100–104), Rath (1973, pp. 287–289), Smith (1974, pp. 165–173), Burg (1975, p. 89–91) or Ashford et al. (1997, pp. 293–297). Before that time, usage of containers in air cargo transport operations on regular basis was virtually non-existent, see Mayercordt (1958, pp. 47–48).

  172. 172.

    Cf. Seidelmann (1971, pp. 112–117), Burg (1975, pp. 194–195), Shaw (1999, pp. 141–142), Wells (1999, pp. 380–382), Grandjot (2002, pp. 61–65) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 515–516).

  173. 173.

    Cf. Seidelmann (1971, pp. 117–119) or Grandjot (2000, 2002, pp. 95–96).

  174. 174.

    Cf. Smith (1974, p. 172), Wood and Johnson (1996, pp. 260–262) or Steiger (2006).

  175. 175.

    Cf. Smith et al. (1992), Bertsch (2000b) or Schüller (2003, pp. 24–25). Specifically, Freight SABRE was established in the 1970s by American Airlines as the first computer reservation system for air cargo shipments, see Arndt and Kinkeldei (1978, pp. 69–70).

  176. 176.

    Cf. Bey (1972, pp. 2–3), Arndt and Kinkeldei (1978, pp. 66–72), Ashford et al. (1997, pp. 305–307), Gräf and Leßmann (2000), Bertsch (2000b) or Schüller (2003, pp. 25–27). Examples are the “London Airport Cargo Electronic Data Processing System” (LACES) at London Heathrow and the “Système d’ordinateur du Frêt International Aérien” (SOFIA) at Paris.

  177. 177.

    Cf. Gräf and Leßmann (2000) or Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 222–224).

  178. 178.

    See Grandjot (2002, pp. 53–54), IATA (2004, pp. 29–31), Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 338–339) and http://www1.iata.org/cargo/distribution/cass/index.htm.

  179. 179.

    See Damsgaard (1999), Gräf and Leßmann (2000), Bertsch (2000b), Grandjot (2002, pp. 162–163), Schüller (2003, p. 26), Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 339–340) or http://www.traxon.com.

  180. 180.

    See Grandjot (2002, pp. 170–171) or Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 337–338) with further references.

  181. 181.

    See DVB (2001, pp. 9–14) or Grandjot (2002, pp. 97–103). A similar segmentation of the air cargo industry in pure freighter airlines, combination carrier and integrators can be found in Eaton (1994), Wells (1999, pp. 369–371), Albers (2000, pp. 19–23) or HSH Nordbank (2007, pp. 17–25).

  182. 182.

    Cf. Eaton (1994), Shaw (1999, pp. 138–140), Grandjot (2002, pp. 9–10), Schüller (2003, p. 11) or HSH Nordbank (2007, pp. 23–32).

  183. 183.

    Cf. Wood et al. (1995, p. 141), Opgenhoff (1997, p. 10), Shaw (1999, pp. 140–141), DVB (2001, p. 15), Grandjot (2002, p. 10), Vahrenkamp (2002, p. 14) or Schüller (2003, p. 11).

  184. 184.

    See Grandjot (2002, pp. 70–81) for technical descriptions of commonly used pure freighter aircrafts. Most of these pure freighters employed in the air cargo industry are former passenger aircrafts converted into freighters, removing all passenger-related facilities, see DVB (2001, p. 15) or HSH Nordbank (2007, pp. 27–32).

  185. 185.

    Cf. Wood et al. (1995, pp. 144–147), Opgenhoff (1997, p. 23), Bess (1996, pp. 48–59), Bjelicic (2000) or DVB (2001, p. 10).

  186. 186.

    Despite many authors like Schneider (1993, pp. 50–54), Opgenhoff (1997, p. 19), Becker (1999, p. 41) or Bachmeier (1999, p. 44) dating the early beginnings of this segment back to the end 1970s, provision of courier-, express-, parcel and/or postal services itself can be traced back to the Ancient Age and some of these four big players were established long before, see Hector (1987) or Bess (1996, pp. 29–32). UPS was established in 1907 in the United States, TNT 1946 in Australia followed by DHL in 1969 and FedEx in 1974 in the United States, see Gutthal (1999, pp. 17–24), Bachmeier (1999, pp. 82–119) or Lucke et al. (2001, p. 294). With the recent development on the European postal market TNT was acquired by the Dutch The Post Groep (TPG) and DHL by the German Deutsche Post World Net (DPWN).

  187. 187.

    Cf. Eaton (1994), Mosler (1999) or DVB (2001, pp. 31–32). Recently, Emery Worldwide was sold to UPS and BAX Global (former Burlington Air Express) was acquired by Deutsche Bahn and merged with their freight forwarding operations under their brand name DB Schenker.

  188. 188.

    See e.g. HSH Nordbank (2007, pp. 20–21).

  189. 189.

    Cf. DVB (2001, pp. 33–34) or HSH Nordbank (2007, p. 24). Examples are Atlas Air Worldwide Holding or Air Atlanta Icelandic.

  190. 190.

    See Arndt and Kinkeldei (1978, pp. 58–66), Mosler (1993), Müller-Rostin (1996), Opgenhoff (1997, p. 11), Odrich (1998:95–97), Becker (1999, pp. 55–62), Dautel (2000), Button and Stough (2000, pp. 293–295), Grandjot (2002, pp. 193–194), Schüller (2003, pp. 21–23) or Bottler (2006). According to Dautel (2000), in Germany about 70% of all air cargo is being trucked.

  191. 191.

    Further, there is a tendency to a full substitution of air freight operations by road haulage especially in Europe up to a distance of 1,000 km, because of transit time and cost reasons, see Windisch (1996, p. 44), Becker (1999, p. 56) or Bottler (2006).

  192. 192.

    In addition to this, see Schulz-Hanßen (1965:53–70 and 142–68) for a quite similar description of seaport operations or Jansson and Shneerson (1982, pp. 9–26) who focused more on the development of handling capacity at seaports.

  193. 193.

    Of course, this list of companies working in and around a seaport is by far exhaustible, e.g. there are tug operators, private firms specialized in mooring vessels, ship building yards or other companies staffing, supplying and maintaining vessels, see Schulz-Hanßen (1965:142–154), Benson et al. (1994, pp. 88–96), Diederich (2000) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 219–221).

  194. 194.

    Cf. Schlichting (1931, pp. 13–14), Martin and Thomas (2001, p. 280) with further references.

  195. 195.

    Cf. Böhme (2000b).

  196. 196.

    Cf. Securius and Böning (1941, pp. 64–67), Ohling (1950, pp. 222–224), Trappe (1995), Puttfarken (1997, pp. 247–249), Knudsen (1998), Herber (1999, pp. 168–171), Böhme (2000b), Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 219–221) or Dischinger et al. (2005, pp. 269–271). According to Miller (2002, p. 8–11), principally three forms of shipping agents can be distinguished: (1) firms whose principal identity and work was shipping agency, (2) trading agencies running shipping agency department and (3) shipping companies owning shipping agents.

  197. 197.

    Serving this double-role, shipping agents are usually called “husbandry agent” or “ship’s husband” if they care only for the vessel and “charter’s agent” if they set their focus on cargo, see Puttfarken (1997, pp. 249–250).

  198. 198.

    Cf. Murr (1979, p. 84), Trappe (1995, p. 324) or Knudsen (1998, p. 155).

  199. 199.

    Cf. Martin and Thomas (2001, p. 282).

  200. 200.

    Cf. Mittendorf and Oelfke (1974, pp. 228–232), Murr (1979, pp. 83–84), Puttfarken (1997, pp. 248–249), Knudsen (1998, pp. 153–154), Herber (1999, pp. 169–171), Strandenes (2000) or Fiotakis (2005).

  201. 201.

    Cf. Martin and Thomas (2001, p. 280) with further references. In Hamburg, warehousing of merchandizes like spices, tea, coffee, cacao, wines or carpets is done up to now by “Quartiersleute” in the former freeport area called “Speicherstadt,” which is still one of the biggest warehousing complexes in the world, see Ohling (1950, pp. 183–184), Diederich (2000), Lauenroth (2001) and Jaeger and Laudel (2003, p. 220). But with the new “Hafencity” project in Hamburg, this traditional form of warehousing will vanish within a few years, see http://www.hafencity.com/en/home.html.

  202. 202.

    See Fischer et al. (1930, pp. 239–240), Schlichting (1931, p. 14), Jansson and Shneerson (1982, pp. 24–26), Diederich (2000) or Martin and Thomas (2001, p. 281) with further references.

  203. 203.

    See Martin and Thomas (2001, p. 281) with further references.

  204. 204.

    Cf. Schlichting (1931, pp. 14–15).

  205. 205.

    Cf. Schlichting (1931, pp. 23–31).

  206. 206.

    Cf. Schlichting (1931, pp. 13–58), Seidelmann (1969, pp. 92–93), Mittendorf and Oelfke (1974, pp. 241–265), Murr (1979, p. 237–248), Schumacher (1987:148–149), Herber (1999, pp. 179–180), Beamer-Downie (1999, pp. 13–21) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 263–267). According to Vadnai (1921, p. 19) or Seiler (1981, p. 82–84), some freight forwarders were working as shipping agents at the same time, but this field of activity was not so common and mainly run by some subsidiary company.

  207. 207.

    Again, this supervision could be outsourced to agents like shipping agents or tallymen, who were usually engaged on behalf and account of a shipping company to inspect and measure outgoing and incoming shipments, see Ohling (1950, pp. 224–233), Jaeger and Laudel (2003:240), Diederich (2000) or ITZ (2002).

  208. 208.

    Cf. Svendsen (1958, pp. 94–102), Baumöller (1970, pp. 62–71), Slack (1998, p. 264) or Martin and Thomas (2001, p. 282–283).

  209. 209.

    Cf. Jansson and Shneerson (1982, pp. 9–26), Slack (1998, pp. 273–276), Pumpe (2000, pp. 29–44), Juhel (2001), Robinson (2002), Steenken et al. (2004) or Vanelslander (2005, pp. 126–140). According to Martin and Thomas (2001, p. 283) “[t]he name ‘terminal’ has been introduced, implying an integrated activity providing services not just to the shipping line but also to importers, exporters and transport operators. The name ‘terminal’ is now applied to facilities that provide a comprehensive range of specialized services to users.” Following them, this kind of terminal system is nowadays also valid for other segments of seagoing cargo. But a detailed discussion about differences between handling of containerized and non-containerized cargo at seaports is beyond of the scope of this work.

  210. 210.

    See Herber (1999, pp. 173–175), Breitzmann (2000), Pumpe (2000, p. 39), Stopford (2000, pp. 29–32), Peters (2001, pp. 17–25), Martin and Thomas (2001, p. 287), Notteboom and Winkelmans (2001, p. 84), Juhel (2001), Notteboom (2002, p. 263), Miller (2002, p. 18) or Brooks (2004). The role of port authorities nowadays often resembles more than that of a landlord, just providing infrastructure and granting concessions to one or more terminal operators if they are not stakeholders or solemn owners of terminal operations on their premises. According to Baird (2002, p. 275), in 36% of the seaports responding to a survey of the International Association of Ports and Harbours (IAPH), container terminals are run by private companies and in 34% they are operated by the port authority. Further, 62% of the seaports responding offer information services and 63% warehousing as value added services.

  211. 211.

    Cf. Rackwitz (1969, pp. 52–63), Slack et al. (1996, pp. 297–298), Talley (2000, pp. 940–944), Böhme (2000:66–67) or Heaver (2002b, pp. 388–389).

  212. 212.

    Cf. Evangelista and Morvillo (1999, pp. 32–34), Heaver et al. (2001, p. 298), Notteboom and Winkelmans (2001, p. 74), Haralambides et al. (2002) or Midoro et al. (2005).

  213. 213.

    Cf. Notteboom (2002, pp. 259–260), McCalla et al. (2004) or Debrie and Gouvernal (2006).

  214. 214.

    Cf. Peters (2001, pp. 17–25), Notteboom and Winkelmans (2001, pp. 78–83), Heaver et al. (2001, pp. 300–302), Notteboom (2002, p. 260–262), Woodbridge (2002), DVB (2002, pp. 74–75), Midoro et al. (2005), Vanelslander (2005, pp. 20–75), Slack and Frémont (2005), Bichou and Bell (2007), Olivier et al. (2007), Notteboom (2007) or Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 297–298). Prominent examples of this ongoing expansion of terminal operators are Hutchison Port Holding (HPH) from Hongkong, Port of Singapore Authority Corp. (PSA), European Combined Terminals (ECT) of Rotterdam, or the German joint venture of Bremer Lagerhaus-Gesellschaft (BLG) and Eurokai called Eurogate.

  215. 215.

    Cf. Casson (1986, pp. 23–27), Kindleberger (1993, pp. 173–174), Evangelista and Morvillo (1999, pp. 32–34), Talley (2000, pp. 938–939), Heaver et al. (2000, pp. 365–367), Notteboom and Winkelmans (2001, pp. 74–75), Heaver (2002a, pp. 218–224, 2002b, p. 385), McCalla et al. (2004) Debrie and Gouvernal (2006), Notteboom and Merckx (2006) or Frémont (2009).

  216. 216.

    Cf. Casson (1986, pp. 22–27), Knudsen (1998, pp. 151–152), Heaver et al. (2001, p. 303), Notteboom and Winkelmans (2001, pp. 74–75), Stapleton and Hanna (2002, p. 6) or Miller (2002, pp. 18–19), McCalla et al. (2004), Notteboom and Merckx (2006) or Frémont (2009).

  217. 217.

    According to Branch (2000, p. 68) or DVB (2002, p. 72), about 50% of all containers are owned by shipping companies or other freight carriers and the residue are shipper-owned or leased. Following Notteboom and Winkelmans (2001, pp. 75–76), the average share of carrier haulage in European hinterland traffic is about 30% with a maximum of 70% in the United Kingdom and a minimum of 10% for Switzerland.

  218. 218.

    Especially the container shipping companies Mearsk Line (APM), COSCO, Evergreen und MSC are engaged in terminal operations, see Heaver et al. (2001, p. 302), Heaver (2002a, 2002b, pp. 383–385), Midoro et al. (2005) or Notteboom (2007).

  219. 219.

    See Seidelmann (1969, p. 94), Burg (1975, pp. 135–136), Francesetti Cazzaniga and Foschi (2001:17–18) or Frémont (2009). Notably, Davies (1981) reports about forward integrating exporters directly negotiating with carriers in the case of United Kingdom leading to the same result.

  220. 220.

    Cf. Branch (1998, pp. 188–192), Thorby (2001b), Beddow (2001), Heaver (2002a, pp. 222–224, 2002b, pp. 385–388), Oldenburg (2002), McCalla et al. (2004), Notteboom and Merckx (2006) or Baird (2006) or Frémont (2009).

  221. 221.

    Cf. Knudsen (1998, pp. 150–154), Eller (2001), Miller (2002, pp. 15–22) or Fiotakis (2005).

  222. 222.

    See Knudsen (1998, pp. 152–153), Böhme (2000b) or Eller (2001). In the container shipping industry, the classical chartering business is concentrated in Hamburg with a market share of about 75%, see Knudsen (1998) or Holtappels (2006). Further Branch (1998, pp. 293–302), Panayides (1999), Panayides and Cullinane (2002) or Mitroussi (2003, 2004) for a description of third party ship management.

  223. 223.

    Cf. Ordemann (1996, pp. 89–93), Neuhof (2000), Stopford (2000, p. 375).

  224. 224.

    Cf. Ordemann (1996, pp. 88–89).

  225. 225.

    According to Notteboom (2002, p. 259), at least two terminal operators (HPH in Felixstowe and ECT in Rotterdam) own road haulier companies, but it seems to be merely unusual for terminal operators to run road transport operations. Moreover, road hauliers are often small private companies who provide simple for-hire trucking services.

  226. 226.

    See Heaver et al. (2000, pp. 365–366), Notteboom (2002, pp. 41–43), Lennarz (2001), Heaver (2002a, p. 220–222) or Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 325–328) with further references.

  227. 227.

    Cf. Rackwitz (1969, pp. 77–82), Seidelmann (1969, pp. 93–95), Seidenfus (1973, pp. 4–5), Heaver et al. (2000, p. 369), Cazzaniga Francesetti and Foschi (2001, pp. 18–19) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 492–494). DSLV (2005, p. 17) estimates that about 75% of general cargo leaving Germany are despatched by freight forwarding companies.

  228. 228.

    Cf. Dehn (1987, pp. 15–17), Seidelmann (1969, pp. 94–95) or Heaver (2002b, pp. 380–382).

  229. 229.

    Cf. Seidelmann (1969, pp. 94–95), Seiler (1981, pp. 82–84), Geuther (1990, pp. 36–37) or Wolf (2000b, 2000c). Further, see Herber (1999, pp. 243–244), Nielsen (2000) or Kehagiaras (2004) for a more comprehensive treatment of legal issues.

  230. 230.

    See Ordemann (1996, pp. 103–105), Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 204–206), Biebig et al. (2004, pp. 272–286) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 465–470) for the following and a more elaborated description, including cost and freight issues in container transport operations.

  231. 231.

    In addition to this, there can occur some mixed arrangements, where e.g. the carrier forwards an empty container to the consignor with the next steps organized in form of merchant haulage, see Ordemann (1996, p. 103–104).

  232. 232.

    Cf. Ordemann (1996, pp. 84–87) or Notteboom (2002, pp. 32–36).

  233. 233.

    See Herber (1999, pp. 242–249), Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 230–208) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 471–481) for a more detailed treatment.

  234. 234.

    Cf. Trappe (1995, pp. 322–324), Herber (1999, pp. 247–249), Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 225–226) or Lorenz (2005, p. 450).

  235. 235.

    See e.g. Jaeger and Laudel (2003, pp. 236–238).

  236. 236.

    See Puttfarken (1997, p. 172), Jaeger and Laudel (2003, p. 256), Lorenz (2005, p. 479) or Kummer et al. (2010, p. 278).

  237. 237.

    Cf. Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 8–9), Puttfarken (1997, pp. 174–175) or Clarke (2002).

  238. 238.

    Cf. Schlichting (1931, pp. 61–64), Mayer (1933, p. 32), Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 7–8), Faber (1996, p. 503–504) or Puttfarken (1997, pp. 173–179).

  239. 239.

    See Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 262–266), Wolf (2000b) or Lammich (2000). According to Müller-Feldhammer (1994, p. 272), this approach was a common practice up to the 1960s.

  240. 240.

    If not a directly responsible performing carrier can be found, then the liability is determined by the applicable transport law of the contracting carrier issuing the through transport document. As Müller-Feldhammer (1994, p. 272) notes, this approach was rather insufficient.

  241. 241.

    Cf. Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 10–22), Faber (1996, pp. 503–504), Slack (1998, pp. 276–277), Wolf (2000c), Spera (2002, pp. 256–261) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, p. 235).

  242. 242.

    Cf. Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 267–274), Beamer-Downie (1999, pp. 75–82), Wolf (2000a, 2000c), Lammich (2000) or Jaeger and Laudel (2003, p. 235).

  243. 243.

    Cf. Faber (1996, pp. 507–508) or Müller-Feldhammer (1996, pp. 275–279).

  244. 244.

    Such an uniform system of liability was first proposed in the “UN Convention on International Multimodal Transport of Goods” of 1980.

  245. 245.

    Cf. Gompf (1994, pp. 20–43) or Kummer et al. (2010, pp. 307–316).

  246. 246.

    Cf. Gompf (1994, pp. 21–31), Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 7–8), Vahrenkamp (2002, p. 16) or Schüller (2003, pp. 16–20).

  247. 247.

    Wood et al. (1995, p. 146) comments this co-operation with “If direct airlines are the wholesalers of space, forwarders are the retailers. They are indirect air carriers.”

  248. 248.

    Cf. Gompf (1994, pp. 31–37) or Lorenz (2005, p. 536).

  249. 249.

    Cf. Gompf (1994, pp. 37–43), Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 20–23) or DVB (2001, pp. 15–16).

  250. 250.

    Cf. Opgenhoff (1997, p. 24) or DVB (2001, p. 14). On the other hand, they market their excess capacity to other airlines in order to improve their load factors.

  251. 251.

    Cf. Rössger (1960, pp. 16–18), Windisch (1996, pp. 22–28), Gompf (1994, pp. 44–58), Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 9–27), Becker (1999, pp. 35–39), Albers (2000, pp. 23–26) or Schüller (2003, pp. 27–35). Further, see Bey (1972, pp. 17–22), Arndt and Kinkeldei (1978, pp. 4–18), Smith (1974, pp. 158–178), Ashford et al. (1997, pp. 286–293) or Grandjot (2002, pp. 130–138) with special reference to documentation flow and physical handling of air cargo shipments at airports.

  252. 252.

    Cf. Graham (2002, pp. 9–52).

  253. 253.

    Cf. Gompf (1994, pp. 114–115), Bender (2000), Grandjot (2002, pp. 128–129) or Maurer (2003, pp. 97–100).

  254. 254.

    See Grandjot (2002, p. 129). Further Ashford et al. (1997, pp. 159–184), Kunz (1999), Pflugbeil (2000), Maurer (2003, pp. 97–100) or Templin (2007, pp. 21–58) for a more elaborated overview.

  255. 255.

    Cf. Graham (2002, pp. 116–118), Maurer (2003, pp. 19–21), Wieske-Hartz (2004, p. 43), Conway (2005a) or Templin (2007, pp. 58–94).

  256. 256.

    Cf. Mosler (1993), Gompf (1994, pp. 52–53), Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 17–18) or Grandjot (2002, p. 129–130).

  257. 257.

    Cf. Rössger (1960, pp. 18–20), Mittendorf and Oelfke (1974, pp. 283–287), Weisskopf (1984, pp. 130–35), Gompf (1994, pp. 47–49), Wood et al. (1995, p. 150), Becker (1999, pp. 38–39), Trommer (2000a) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 532–533). Recognizing the changing needs and circumstances in the ECAA, IATA started in 2004 a special European Air Cargo Programme (EACP) in cooperation with IATA member airlines and intermediary representative organizations, see IATA (2004) for further details.

  258. 258.

    Cf. Rössger (1960, pp. 17–18), Dehn (1987, pp. 19–20), Windisch (1996, pp. 22–23), Becker (1999, p. 38–39), Albers (2000, p. 25), Grandjot (2002, p. 128), Bowen and Leinbach (2004) or Neiberger (2007, 2008).

  259. 259.

    According to IATA-Resolution 823: “‘AGENT’ (sometimes referred to as ‘IATA Cargo Agent’) means a legal person which is a registered IATA Cargo Agent whose name is entered on the Cargo Agency List, having executed an IATA Cargo Agency Agreement having been adjudged to have met the registration and retention criteria as specified in the Cargo Agency Rules. This term also includes European Air Cargo Programme Intermediaries who conduct transactions in accordance with Part 1 of the European Air Cargo Programme form of Cargo Intermediary Agreement.”

  260. 260.

    Cf. Mittendorf and Oelfke (1974, pp. 280–282), Odrich (1998, pp. 93–95) or Trommer (2000b).

  261. 261.

    Cf. Seiler (1981, p. 82), Trommer (2000b) or Mosler (2002).

  262. 262.

    According to estimates by DSLV (2005, pp. 17–19), 98% of all air cargo departuring Germany is despatched and delivered “ready for carriage” by freight forwarding companies with an overwhelming share being consolidated shipments. Further, 75% of air cargo in import is handled by them, too.

  263. 263.

    Cf. Rosenthal (1950, pp. 438–439), Smith (1974, pp. 178–184), Weisskopf (1984, pp. 132–135), Schumacher (1987, pp. 149–150), Gran (1996), Gompf (1994, pp. 48–49), Bachmeier (1999, pp. 69–78), Trommer (2000c), Grandjot (2002, pp. 99–101), Schüller (2003, pp. 29–31) or Lorenz (2005, p. 533–535).

  264. 264.

    Cf. Dehn (1987, pp. 19–20) or Gompf (1994, pp. 46–49). So they serve a dual role, being an agent for both shipper and airline, see Rössger (1960, p. 20) or Gompf (1994, pp. 113–114) with further comments.

  265. 265.

     Cf. Gran (1996), Becker (1999, pp. 33–35), Trommer (2000a, 2000c), Branch (2000, pp. 133–135) or Lorenz (2005, pp. 534–535).

  266. 266.

    Cf. Smith (1974, pp. 179–180) or Becker (1999, pp. 50–51).

  267. 267.

    Cf. DVB (2001, pp. 30–31), Mosler (2001), Schüller (2003, pp. 38–39), Siegmund (2007) or Neiberger (2007). Following Rössger (1960, pp. 26–28), this is not a recent development because already in 1951, freight forwarders at Hamburg joined together in a “Frachtenkontor” in order to pool their air cargo shipments. This business practice was adopted by other freight forwarders in the air cargo industry within a short time and was finally legalized by the IATA in 1954.

  268. 268.

    Cf. Schneider (1993, pp. 91–128), Windisch (1996, p. 27), Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 20–23), Bachmeier (1999, p. 78–81), Grandjot (2002, pp. 102–103), Vahrenkamp (2002, pp. 18–20) or Schüller (2003, pp. 33–35).

  269. 269.

    Cf. Schneider (1993, pp. 52–54), Gutthal (1999, pp. 25–27), Bess (1996, pp. 33–63), Bjelicic (2000) or DVB (2001, pp. 32–33).

  270. 270.

    Cf. Thaler (1990, pp. 104–109), Gran (1996), Bjelicic (2000) or Grandjot (2002, pp. 97–98).

  271. 271.

    Cf. Gompf (1994, p. 116), Gran (1996), Opgenhoff (1997, pp. 24–26) or DVB (2001, p. 13).

  272. 272.

    Following Steiger (2006), 33.0%–48.8% of all air cargo shipped between North America, Europe and the Asia-Pacific region are so-called “Build-up Units” – ULDs containing consolidated cargo delivered to the airport “ready for carriage” by freight forwarding companies.

  273. 273.

    Usually, an ULD can be picked up at the airport up to 48 h in advance free of charge in order to be build up at the premises of a shipper or freight forwarder, whereas on the onward-carriage leg, the ULD can be again brought outside the airport for 48 h before a detention charge is raised, see Smith (1974, p. 170).

  274. 274.

    Cf. Aberle (1989), but similar statements can be found in Matthäi (1981, 1991), Murphy and Daley (2001), Lorenz (2005, pp. 82–84) or Markides and Holweg (2006), too.

  275. 275.

    Cf. Aberle (1989, pp. 6–7, 2003, pp. 91–94).

  276. 276.

    Cf. Seidenfus (1973, p. 2), Aberle (1989, p. 8, 2003, pp. 96–98) or Thaler (1990, pp. 110–126).

  277. 277.

    See e.g. Suelflow and Hille (1970), Dehn (1987, pp. 15–40), Semeijn and Vellenga (1995) or Aberle (2005, pp. 380–381).

  278. 278.

    Cf. Beplat (1970, pp. 128–131, 143–156), Davies (1981), Matthäi (1991), Murphy et al. (1992), Murphy and Daley (1995, 1996a, 1996b, 2001), Gran (1996), Cazzaniga Francesetti and Foschi (2001), Heaver (2002b), Lorenz (2005, pp. 74–79) or Neiberger (2007, 2008).

  279. 279.

    Cf. Aberle (1989, pp. 8–8, 2003, pp. 170–229, 2005, p. 380), Schachinger (1989), Simon (1993, pp. 58–94), Opatz (1994, pp. 17–73), Bess (1996, pp. 29–63), Button (2001) or Neiberger (2008).

  280. 280.

    See various trade press contributions like Knee (2001), Conway (2005b), Cullen (2006) or MergeGlobal (2008a) commenting actual industry development as well as Dörrenbacher (1990), Burckhardt et al. (1998), Plehwe (1999), Klaus (1999), Ludvigsen (2000), Lemoine and Dagnæs (2003), Bowen and Leinbach (2004), Wettbewerbsverein (2004), Neiberger (2008) or Schramm and Niedermaier (2008a, 2008b) discussing this phenomenon.

  281. 281.

    See Welker (1988, pp. 12–26), Aberle (1989, pp. 7–8, 2003:94–95, 2005:384–385), Ihde (1989), Niegel (1991, pp. 46–65), Simon (1993, pp. 33–39), Schmidt (1996) or Allen (1997).

  282. 282.

    Cf. Matthäi (1991), Gompf (1994, pp. 101–112), Aberle (2003, pp. 94–96), Lorenz (2005, p. 79–82) or Neiberger (2007).

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  1. Department of Global Business and Trade, Institute for Transport and Logistics Management, Nordbergstr. 15, 1090, Vienna, Austria

    Dr. Hans-Joachim Schramm

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Schramm, HJ. (2012). Legal and Functional Perspective of Freight Forwarding in Multimodal Transport Chains. In: Freight Forwarder's Intermediary Role in Multimodal Transport Chains. Contributions to Management Science. Physica, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7908-2775-0_2

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