Abstract
From the discussions made in previous chapters on environmental, technological, and strategic changes, on the new organizational possibilities, and on the new coordination mechanisms, what is proposed in this work as a new structure that has gained strength in the world of organizations can be presented. This configuration deserves so to be highlighted and it is proposed here as a supplement to Henry Mintzberg’s classification. In many cases, it presents itself as an alternative to the Machine Bureaucracy that was, until recently, the format most used by large companies that operate with high production volume and low production variety. The presentation is made, as far as possible, by following the same steps taken by Henry Mintzberg in his characterization of the five traditional organizational configurations. Differences appear, however, due to the peculiarities of the Automated Bureaucracy. Comparisons with the Machine Bureaucracy are inevitable, which does, in fact, make it easier to understand the model proposed here. In the same way, comparisons with other types of structures are made, notably with the format used by processing production firms as characterized by Joan Woodward.
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Notes
- 1.
MINTZBERG, Henry. The structuring of organizations: a synthesis of the research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979 and MINTZBERG, Henry. Criando organizações eficazes: estruturas em cinco configurações. São Paulo: Atlas, 1995.
- 2.
This kind of firm is discussed in several parts of this book, mainly in Chap. 5. See also: WOODWARD, Joan. Organização industrial: teoria e pratica. São Paulo: Atlas, 1977.
- 3.
As discussed ahead, some firms use mixed formats: Automated Bureaucracy and traditional structures, mainly the Machine Bureaucracy.
- 4.
This form of production is often treated as a closed system, i.e., it does not keep relations with external elements – in this case, the workers – in its normal operation.
- 5.
Such concepts are discussed in Chap. 5.
- 6.
Although many firms use automation based on IT, such form of automation, and the resulting removal of workers, happen mainly in mass production firms. Discussion on this fact is presented in the item dedicated to conditions to the Automated Bureaucracy and this fact is alerted, for instance, in CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: o impacto socioeconômico da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989.
- 7.
WOODWARD, Joan. Organização industrial: teoria e prática. São Paulo: Atlas, 1977.
- 8.
References of cases of industries that underwent automation and consequent high removal of workforce are many, and presented along this chapter.
- 9.
Two important comments: First: The Automated Bureaucracy does not present the same structure of the processing production firms featured by Joan Woodward, and the causes for its emergence and its organizational consequences are different as well. Discussion on consequences of IT in processing production firms is presented next chapter. Second: As alerted by Benjamin Coriat, many workplaces do not lose features of traditional work. Thus mass production firms do not change completely into continuous production firms. B. Coriat notes these aspects in types of production that happen in auto industries that use robots (CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: o impacto socioeconômico da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989).
- 10.
The discussion on flexibility using IT-based automation is presented in Chap. 5.
- 11.
The discussion on integration using IT-based automation is presented in Chap. 5.
- 12.
The concept of ERP is discussed in Chap. 5.
- 13.
Such concepts are discussed in Chap. 5. Automaker sector offers appropriate example of supplier–client integration (ZAWISLAK, Paulo Antonio e MELO, Aurélia Adriana. A indústria automotiva no Rio Grande do Sul: impactos recentes e alternativas de desenvolvimento. In: NABUCO, Maria Regina; NEVES, Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A Editora, 2002; MARTIN, Scott B. e VEIGA, João Paulo C. Globalização dos mercados, localização produtiva e relações interfirmas: o caso das montadoras alemãs nos EUA nos anos 1990. In: NABUCO, Maria Regina, NEVES, Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A Editora, 2002 and LACERDA, Juliana Subtil. Novos padrões de organização da produção e de relacionamento na indústria automotiva: o caso da General Motors em Gravataí. In: Anais Enanpad. Atibaia: Anpad, 2003).
- 14.
The use of semi-autonomous groups is mainly grounded in socio-technical approach, considering researches made by the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations. Such approach had influenced many techniques, practices and other approaches that have followed such as the Quality of Work Life.
- 15.
The automaker industry presents again as an example. Due to several factors, the firms of this economic sector do not fully automate their production processes and often make use of lean production. (See: CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: o impacto socioeconômico da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989; LEAL, Rosangela Maria de Almeida Camarano. Novas tecnologias no setor automotivo: o saber relacional em questão. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2001 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Engenharia da Produção) and SANTOS, Cléa Maria Quaresma, MORAES, Lucio Flavio Renault e KILIMNIK, Zélia Miranda. Qualidade de vida no trabalho, estresse ocupacional e sistema just-in-time: um estudo de caso no setor automobilístico. Anais Enanpad. Foz do Iguaçu: Anpad, 1999).
- 16.
Joan Woodward noted these tasks in processing production firms. (WOODWARD, Joan. Organização industrial: teoria e prática. São Paulo: Atlas, 1977).
- 17.
Philippe Zarifian, analyzing changes concerning automation, considers the importance of events, or unexpected situations that could arise and that would demand human intervention. (ZARIFIAN, Philippe. Objetivo competência. São Paulo: Atlas, 2001). Benjamin Coriat mentions new tasks in automation systems related to vigilance-control-direction (CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômico da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989). David Nadler, discussing new forms of work, reports activities disappearing in a place and appearing in another (NADLER, David A. GERSTEIN, Marc S. SHAW, Robert B. Arquitetura organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Campus, 1994). Two interesting empirical works report such activities: SOARES, Rozália Del Gáudio e PIMENTA, Solange Maria. O Homem e a máquina: de operador a expectador. In: Anais Enanpad. Florianópolis: Anpad, 2000 and FERREIRA FILHO, Nelson. Sistema fechado, atividade aberta: quando os automatismos não funcionam. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2003 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Engenharia da Produção).
- 18.
Such comparison is done with traditional processing production firms, not with modern processing production firms that are discussed in the next chapter.
- 19.
Joan Woodward noted such activities also in mass and batch operations. H. Mintzberg defines maintenance work as support activity in Machine Bureaucracies.
- 20.
Benjamin Coriat’s work is a reference concerning maintenance activities and changes in traditional industries. (CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômico da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989). Item ahead present some discuss on outsourcing of maintenance activities.
- 21.
MINTZBERG, Henry. Criando organizações eficazes: estruturas em cinco configurações. São Paulo: Atlas, 1995.
- 22.
The sole use of IT is not enough for developing innovation. Some organizational mechanisms are also necessary (See: MOTTA, P. R. Transformação organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Qualitymark, 2000). A research in the banking sector shows that the use of IT led to an increase in productivity but not in innovation, considering workers perception (PEREIRA, Maria Tereza Flores e BECKER, João Luiz. O impacto da tecnologia de informação (TI) sobre o processo de trabalho individual: estudo em um grande banco brasileiro. In: Anais Enanpad. Atibaia: Anpad, 2003). Philippe Zarifian alerts for activities of innovation assigned to workers (ZARIFIAN, Philippe. Objetivo competência. São Paulo: Atlas, 2001). Groups dedicated to quality are other example. Groups dedicated to creativity and innovation in institutionalized programs can be seen in researches such as: SOARES, Rozália Del Gáudio e PIMENTA, Solange Maria. O Homem e a máquina: de operador a expectador. In: Anais Enanpad. Florianópolis: Anpad, 2000 and LEAL, Rosangela Maria de Almeida Camarano. Novas tecnologias no setor automotivo: o saber relacional em questão. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2001 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Engenharia da Produção).
- 23.
Participation brings about smaller resistance to changes and also involvement from workers, aspects alerted for long time in management theory, mainly, in behavioral approach.
- 24.
This aspect is discussed in the chapter on automation (Chap. 5).
- 25.
Benjamin Coriat noted hierarchical difference between workers responsible for operations and people responsible for programming equipment (See: CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômico da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989).
- 26.
In many cases, the border between intervention and maintenance activities is tenuous and not clear. In visiting a food firm and a metal foundry industry, it was noted that maintenance activities were assigned to the same workers responsible for maintaining the production flow.
- 27.
Aspect discussed in literature for long time, as in QWL movement (see Chap. 8). Research conducted in two auto companies that presented different levels of automation found that the use of workers with the same education level didn’t work. The company with less automation had to employ workers with lower education. (See: CARLEIAL, Liana; GOMES FILHA, Maria Lucia de Figueiredo e NEVES, Lafaiete Santos. A gestão da força de trabalho na indústria automotiva: uma primeira aproximação a partir dos casos da Renault e da Audi-Volks. In: NABUCO, Maria Regina, NEVES, Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A, 2002). Visiting an auto industry that present different types of production processes, from Taylorist processes to robotic processes, the same problem was reported to this author by managers.
- 28.
The discussion on qualifications for working in traditional processing production firms raises some controversy. Joan Woodward, for example, warned of the necessity of conceptual skills for workers in such workplace. Harry Braverman, on the other hand, questioned the need for highly qualified workers in such companies. (WOODWARD, Joan. Organização industrial: teoria e pratica. São Paulo: Atlas, 1977 and BRAVERMAN. Harry. Trabalho e capital monopolista. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan S/A, 1987).
- 29.
Benjamin Coriat reports the need of multifuncionality at work (CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômico da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989).
- 30.
ZARIFIAN, Philippe. A gestão da e pela competência In: Seminário internacional: educação profissional, trabalho e competências. Rio de Janeiro: CIET, Nov. – 1996 and ZARIFIAN, Philippe. Objetivo competência. São Paulo: Atlas, 2001.
- 31.
F. Herzberg’s work is a reference in this matter and was followed by other studies. (HERZBERG, Frederick. One more time: how to motivate employees? Harvard Business Review, v. 46, n. 1, pp. 53–62, Jan./Feb. 1968).
- 32.
This can be seen in OUCHI, William. Teoria Z: como as empresas podem enfrentar o desafio japonês. São Paulo: Nobel, 1986 and PETERS, Thomas J. e WATERMAN Jr., Robert H. Vencendo a crise: como o bom senso empresarial pode superá-la. São Paulo: Harper e Row, 1983. Henry Mintzberg uses the concept of indoctrination and he warns of its importance in some types of work such as where the jobs are sensitive or remote or when strong loyalty is required. For the sixth organization, Missionary, he proposes the socialization or the standardization of norms as the main coordination mechanism, and the indoctrination as the main design parameter. (MINTZBERG, Henry. Criando organizações eficazes: estruturas em cinco configurações. São Paulo: Atlas, 1995).
- 33.
New management models that incorporate cultural elements are discussed in: PIMENTA, Solange Maria (Org). Recursos humanos, uma dimensão estratégica. Belo Horizonte: Editora UFMG, 1999).
- 34.
Considering specific values, the term organizational culture can be used, but as for general values, the existence of an organizational culture can be questioned, since they are values common to the whole society including the various organizations (see criticisms of the concept of organizational culture in Chap. 9).
- 35.
Values concerning the maintenance of the production flow are discussed since Joan Woodward’s work on processing production firms (WOODWARD, Joan. Organização industrial: teoria e pratica. São Paulo: Atlas, 1977). Values concerning customer satisfaction and firm’s mission can be seen, for example, in OUCHI, William. Teoria Z: como as empresas podem enfrentar o desafio japonês. São Paulo: Nobel, 1986. Many authors currently highlight issues concerning indoctrination, ideology and introjection being used by organizations. Benjamin Coriat can be mentioned in this aspect (CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômicos da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989). Stephen Robbins, in his work on organizational behavior, discusses the concept of organizational citizenship, in which the employee would be considered a good citizen when he makes positive statements about the work of his group and the firm, helps colleagues in their teams, volunteers to work overtime, avoids unnecessary conflict, shows himself careful with the company assets, among others (ROBBINS, Stephen. Comportamento organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Ltc Editora, 1999).
- 36.
There is now a large literature on this. Most of them even may be challenged by their “empiricism” and connection with the so-called self-help literature.
- 37.
The references come from Douglas McGregor and Rinsis Likert, and practices of OD and semi-autonomous groups (LIKERT, R. Novos padrões de administração. São Paulo: Pioneira, 1979; McGREGOR, Douglas. O lado humano na empresa. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1999).
- 38.
Such remote monitoring was found in a petrochemical company in which managers have access to the company's production system from their homes.
- 39.
Corrective treatments for informal relations are discussed in Chap. 3.
- 40.
These roles could even be required in traditional organizations (see, for instance, MINTZBERG, Henry. Trabalho do executivo: o folclore e o fato. In: Coleção Harvard de Administração. São Paulo: Nova Cultural, 1986), but apparently they did not have the importance discussed here.
- 41.
Such importance is discussed in MINTZBERG, Henry. Criando organizações eficazes: estruturas em cinco configurações. São Paulo: Atlas, 1995.
- 42.
Rosabeth Moss Kanter is one of the references in regarding new functions, skills and roles of a middle manager, and discusses this subject in the situation of innovation and entrepreneurship. (KANTER, Rosabeth Moss. O gerente intermediário como inovador. Harvard Business Review, agosto, 2004).
- 43.
As for situational or contingency leadership, models of Fiedler, Vroom and Tannembauem can be mentioned. Moreover, neocharismatic leadership that emphasizes aspects of value and norms are also references. (See discussion on this in ROBBINS, Stephen. Comportamento organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Ltc Editora, 1999).
- 44.
Research that examines the trajectory of the function of O & M in several firms along a period of ten years found that this area had a significant decrease in its activity and importance, and its activities were distributed among other areas of the organization. As main causes, the study indicates, among others, changes in forms of management and the advent of information technology. (CALDAS, Miguel P. O triste destino da área de O&M. Revista de Administração de Empresas, São Paulo, v. 39, n. 2, pp. 6–17, abr/jun.1999 and CALDAS, Miguel P. O triste destino da área de O&M II, Revista de Administração de Empresas, São Paulo, v. 39, n. 3, pp. 6–16, jul./set.).
- 45.
Practices such as the participatory selection and 360° performance evaluation are some examples.
- 46.
Consulting and advisory activities are known and discussed for long time in management theory. In Machine Bureaucracies, positions and departments related to them always used to carry out many functions and held enormous power, questioning the expression “consulting and advisory” (MINTZBERG, Henry. The structuring of organizations: a synthesis of the research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979).
- 47.
This is discussed in the chapter on new mechanisms of coordination (Chap. 9), more specifically, coordination by contracts and transaction cost approach. Opting for external acquisition, coordination by contracts assumes greater importance, more specifically, bilateral relational contracts.
- 48.
- 49.
Some of these changes are discussed in Chap. 7 on strategy.
- 50.
MINTZBERG, Henry. The structuring of organizations: a synthesis of the research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979, p. 321.
- 51.
The increasing interest in issues related to Corporate Governance demonstrates also the search for dividing responsibilities on the major decisions in organizations (LODI, João Bosco. Governança Corporativa: o governo da empresa e o conselho de administração. Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier, 2000).
- 52.
In traditional but highly automated processing production companies, according to Joan Woodward, collegial decisions at the top used to be used. The great power assigned to Chief Executive Officers – CEO’s – throughout the history of organizations is now rather lower. A recent article by Peter Drucker presents discussion on this aspect: top managers’ new roles, more consensual decisions, and also the questioning of the figure and the power of the CEO’s (DRUCKER, Peter. F. A corporação sobreviverá. Revista Exame, 18/05/2003). In the chapter on strategies (Chap. 7), changes in the strategy decisions are discussed, especially concerning the involvement of lower-level managers in the decisions as well as decisions of councils.
- 53.
Similar to what happened to managers in traditional processing companies according to Joan Woodward (WOODWARD, Joan. Organização industrial: teoria e pratica. São Paulo: Atlas, 1977) and the head figure of Henry Mintzberg’s manager roles (MINTZBERG, Henry. Trabalho do executivo: o folclore e o fato. In: Coleção Harvard de Administração. São Paulo: Nova Cultural, 1986).. Peter Drucker’s article also treats this issue (DRUCKER, Peter. F. A corporação sobreviverá. Revista Exame, 18/05/2003).
- 54.
Theories on neocharismatic leadership discussed today meet this aspect. (ROBBINS, Stephen. Comportamento organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Ltc Editora, 1999).
- 55.
According to Henry Mintzberg, the Machine Bureaucracies exist “only so long as these do not displace a work force dominated by unskilled operators” (MINTZBERG, Henry. The structuring of organizations: a synthesis of the research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979, p 326).
- 56.
Concepts from Production Engineering such as limits and limitations of automation help to understand this aspect (FERREIRA FILHO, Nelson. Sistema fechado, atividade aberta: quando os automatismos não funcionam. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2003 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Engenharia da Produção).
- 57.
This limitation is discussed in Chap. 5, where the CN-based automation technology is presented as the only automation technology that enables high variety in production. Benjamin Coriat stated that the work related to high machining is performed by CN-based machines (CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômicos da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989).
- 58.
CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômicos da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989.
- 59.
CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômicos da automação. São Paulo: Ed. Busca Vida, 1989. Stages of the operation related to the auto body, for example, can have greater automation, and stages related to the final assembly can not. (ZAWISLAK, Paulo Antonio e MELO, Aurélia Adriana. A industria automotiva no Rio Grande do Sul: impactos recentes e alternativas de desenvolvimento. In: NABUCO, Maria Regina, NEVES; Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A, 2002 and NEVES, Magda de Almeida; OLIVEIRA, André Mourthé e BRANDÃO, Nágela Aparecida. A complexa montagem de um veiculo: a Mercedes-Benz em Juiz de Fora. In: NABUCO, Maria Regina; NEVES, Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A, 2002).
- 60.
In the future, automation processes that solve this problem can be developed, which does not invalidate the considerations made here, i.e., the need for some standardization and quality of inputs that allow automation.
- 61.
The concept of business used here refers to the corresponding consumer need that the organization has to meet (LEVITT, Theodore. Miopia em marketing. Coleção Harvard de Administração, v. 1. São Paulo: Nova Cultural, 1986).
- 62.
When the customer does not keep systems that allow integration, the Automated Bureaucracy often makes use of some expedients such as sellers using devices equipped with IT-based systems that allow remote communication and consequent integration.
- 63.
Among the possibilities of supply in the automotive sector, new physical arrangements can be seen, besides those based on industrial districts. Industrial condominiums, modular condominiums (firms use areas of the automaker) and modular consortiums (firms share the same buildings with the automaker) are some of these new physical arrangements. (ZAWISLAK, Paulo Antonio e MELO, Aurélia Adriana. A indústria automotiva no Rio Grande do Sul: impactos recentes e alternativas de desenvolvimento. In: NABUCO, Maria Regina, NEVES, Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A, 2002).
- 64.
Aspect discussed in Chap. 8 on new organizational possibilities.
- 65.
Corporate universities can be considered as “a strategic umbrella for the firm’s total education requirements for all employees and also external stakeholders” (Jeanne Meister cited by JUNQUEIRA, Luiz Augusto Costa Curta e VIANNA, Marco Aurélio Ferreira. Capital intelectual, gestão do conhecimento e universidade corporativa. In: BOOG, Gustavo G. Manual de treinamento e desenvolvimento da ABTD. São Paulo: Makron Books, 1999).
- 66.
Comments on this aspect are presented in Chap. 4, devoted to Henry Mintzberg’s configurations.
- 67.
Differentiation to deal with external complexity is discussed in the Chap. 3 considering Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Losch’s studies (LAWRENCE, Paul R. LORSCH, Jay W. As empresas e o ambiente. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1973).
- 68.
This aspect is discussed in Chap. 4.
- 69.
This aspect is discussed in Chap. 7.
- 70.
This aspect is discussed in Chap. 7, considering the functional strategies.
- 71.
Frederick Reichheld, author of The Loyalty Effect and Loyalty Rules, defends loyalty as a strategy not only with customers but also with workers.
- 72.
With regard to maintaining a close relationship with the client, Regis McKenna is one of the most cited authors (MCKENNA, Regis. Marketing de relacionamento: estratégias bem-sucedidas para a era do cliente. Rio de Janeiro: Campus, 1992). The concept of Customer Relationship Management – CRM is now widely discussed in the literature related to strategy and information systems.
- 73.
Aspect discussed in Chap. 7 on strategy.
- 74.
See chapter on strategy.
- 75.
This is discussed in Chap. 3 on types of structure.
- 76.
Often, decisions related to the use of IT are not considered a strategic issue, but only an instrument, or means to it, that make the strategy possible. However, the use of IT in here is being considered strategic, even a functional aspect (see Chap. 7). The existence of the Chief Information Officer – CIO is evidence that decisions related to IT are of strategic importance and not just operational.
- 77.
The concept of Customer Relationship Management – CRM can be cited again as an example.
- 78.
Research with 209 companies that use ERP systems emphasizes their advantages, especially in terms of improvements in the relations with suppliers (SACCOL, Amarolina Zanela, PEDRON, Cristinae Dreber, LIBERALI NETO, Guilherme, MACADAR, Marie Anne e CAZELLA, Silvio César. Avaliação do impacto dos sistemas ERP sobre variáveis estratégicas de grandes empresas no Brasil. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, v. 8, n. 1, pp. 9–34, Jan./Mar. 2004).
- 79.
This aspect is discussed in Chap. 6 considering Manuel Castells’ studies.
- 80.
Some of these advantages are discussed in the chapter on new forms of coordination, item 9.2, considering especially Charles Perrow’s comments.
- 81.
This was discussed in the chapter on strategy considering Manuel Castells’ comments.
- 82.
Charles Handy presents this situation as the shamrock organization: the first leaf represents the organization’s core staff, the second represents outsourced workers and, the third represents temporary or part-time workers or contractors. (HANDY, Charles. Tempo de mudanças. São Paulo: Saraiva, 1996).
- 83.
Other reasons can be given. Some of them, by the way, are questionable, as they show only opportunistic behavior by firms. Research done in Brazil, for example, shows that many companies outsource activities just for the reduction of costs. Precariousness of work and reduction of wages and benefits are other consequences of this process. (See, for instance, ARAÚJO, Maria Valéria Pereira. Caminhos e descaminhos da terceirização. In: Anais Enanpad. Florianópolis: Anpad, 2000 e BICUDO,Valeria Rosa. Terceirização na Petrobrás: Implicações Sociais, Gerenciais e Políticas. In: Anais Enanpad. Atibaia: Anpad, 2003).
- 84.
- 85.
CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômicos da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989.
- 86.
Research conducted by Maria Valeria Pereira de Araújo shows that companies do not outsource for several issues, among them the lack of qualified and trusty suppliers. (ARAÚJO, Maria Valéria Pereira de. Caminhos e descaminhos da terceirização. In: Anais Enapad. Florianópolis: Anpad, 2000). Research conducted by Sandro Cabral, that discusses late process of outsourcing in Brazilian’s companies when compared to developed countries’ companies, points out that lack of specialized suppliers is an important hindrance for outsourcing (CABRAL, Sandro. Estratégias de desintegração vertical: um olhar sob a perspectiva de custos de transação. In: Anais Enanpad. Atibaia: Anpad, 2003). Transaction cost approach, discussed in chapter on new coordination mechanisms, presents aspects that would restrict outsourcing: uncertainty, transaction frequency and specificity of the product.
- 87.
Research in the automotive sector in Brazil and in United States show progress in these relations, appearing several of these practices (LACERDA, Juliana Subtil. Novos padrões de organização da produção e de relacionamento na industria automotiva: o caso da General Motors em Gravataí. In: Anais Enanpad. Atibaia: Anpad, 2003; GOLDONI, Ângelo Rodrigues e SOUZA, Lucy Aparecida. Evolução do relacionamento de fornecedores de ferramentas de corte no segmento de usinagem da cadeia automotiva brasileira. In: Anais Enapad. Atibaia: Anpad, 2003; MARTIN, Scott B. e VEIGA, João Paulo C. Globalização dos mercados, localização produtiva e relações interfirmas: o caso das montadoras alemãs nos EUA nos anos 1990. In: NABUCO, Maria Regina, NEVES, Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A, 2002).
- 88.
Kurt Lewin is considered one of the pioneers in the studies on changes. (LEWIN, K. Teoria de campo em ciência social. São Paulo: Pioneira, 1965).
- 89.
LEAL, Rosangela Maria de Almeida Camarano. Novas tecnologias no setor automotivo: o saber relacional em questão. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2001 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Engenharia da Produção); NEVES, Magda de Almeida; OLIVEIRA, André Mourthé e BRANDÃO, Nágela Aparecida. A complexa montagem de um veículo: a Mercedes-Benz em Juiz de Fora. In: NABUCO, Maria Regina; NEVES, Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A, 2002.
- 90.
Research conducted by Rosa Maria Fischer and Andrés Pablo Falconer shows the importance of such activities in developing skills related to interpersonal ones, leadership, communication, creativity and working in teams as well as creating a positive organizational climate. (FISCHER, Rosa Maria e FALCONER, Andrés Pablo. Voluntariado empresarial: estratégias de empresas no Brasil. Revista de Administração, São Paulo v. 36, n. 3, pp. 15–27, jul/set 2001).
- 91.
STREBEL, Paul. Escolhendo o caminho certo. In: Financial Times. Dominando administração.São Paulo: Makron, 1999.
- 92.
Henry Mintzberg and Quy Nguyen Huy discuss the corporate revolution as a kind of change that goes through a radical phase, but then it requires systematic changes to consolidate the process (MINTZBERG, Henry e HUY, Quy Nguyen. Reforma, revolução e rejuvenescimetno. HSM Management 41, nov-dez 2003). This fact may explain the results of a research conducted in UK companies that show that Reengineering would tend to be less used in the future, as opposed to other practices related to change, such as the culture of learning and TQM (LOIOLA, Elizabeth, TEIXEIRA, João Carlos, NERIS, Jorge Santos e RIOS, Mino Correia. Padrões de adoção de praticas inovadoras de produção e organização no Brasil. In: Anais Enanpad. Atibaia: Anpad, 2003).
- 93.
Discussions on the level of the analysis of the structure can be seen in NADLER, David A. GERSTEIN, Marc S. SHAW, Robert B. Arquitetura organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Campus, 1994.
- 94.
Network organization is discussed in Chap. 8, on new organizational possibilities.
- 95.
Types of contracts and the increasing use of bilateral relational contracts are discusses in Chap. 9.
- 96.
Limitations are expected events; limits are unforeseen occurrences (FERREIRA FILHO, Nelson. Sistema fechado, atividade aberta: quando os automatismos não funcionam. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2003 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Engenharia da Produção).
- 97.
FERREIRA FILHO, Nelson. Sistema fechado, atividade aberta: quando os automatismos não funcionam. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2003 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Engenharia da Produção).
- 98.
Obviously, these situations vary greatly according to the firm and even the individual (see, discussion in HACKMAN, J. R., e OLDHAM, G.R. Work Redesign. Illinois: 1979).
- 99.
This aspect is discussed in Chap. 8.
- 100.
This aspect is discussed in Chap. 8.
- 101.
These issues concerning limitations on autonomy can be found also in studies such as: SOARES, Rozália Del Gáudio e PIMENTA, Solange Maria. O Homem e a máquina: de operador à expectador. In: Anais Enanpad. Florianópolis: Anpad, 2000; NEVES, Magda de Almeida; OLIVEIRA, André Mourthé e BRANDÃO, Nágela Aparecida. A complexa montagem de um veículo: a Mercedes-Benz em Juiz de Fora. In: NABUCO, Maria Regina; NEVES, Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A, 2002; LEAL, Rosangela Maria de Almeida Camarano. Novas tecnologias no setor automotivo: o saber relacional em questão. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2001 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Engenharia da Produção). Cesar Souza points out that ERP is used to achieve centralization in the organization (SOUZA, César Alexandre, VASCONCELOS, Eduardo Pinheiro Gondim. Tecnologia da Informação e centralização organizacional: um estudo de caso de implementação de sistema ERP. In: Anais Enanpad. Atibaia: Anpad, 2003). Research using Hackman and Oldham’s model of Quality of Working Life, carried out in a banking institution that had undergone restructuring process, found an increase in the variety of activities carried out by workers, but maintaining the worker’s level of autonomy (OLIVEIRA, Nélio. Mudança organizacional e qualidade de vida no trabalho: um estudo comparativo-temporal em agências do Banco do Brasil S/A. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2002. (Dissertação, Mestrado em Administração)).
- 102.
Several authors emphasize the current overload at work. Benjamin Coriat emphasizes that even in automated systems that would require less human activity, the number of interventions of the workers in the process is high (CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: o impacto socioeconômico da automação. São Paulo: Busca Vida, 1989). Rosangela Leal alerts to the fact that the employee keeps his thinking at work even when at rest at home (LEAL, Rosangela Maria de Almeida Camarano. Novas tecnologias no setor automotivo: o saber relacional em questão. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2001 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Engenharia da Produção)).
- 103.
Two comments: First, studies on psychological problems coming from work are not new, but many of these problems are intensified with the new forms of work. Second, stress sometimes is regarded as having positive consequences. Here the stress is considered only as a process in which the internal mobilization goes beyond the physical or mental capacities of men (ROBBINS, Stephen. Comportamento organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Ltc Editora, 1999). Burnout is considered a psychological syndrome resulting from chronic high stress at work. (TAMAYO, Álvaro. Exaustão emocional no trabalho. Revista de Administração, São Paulo v. 37, n. 2, pp. 26–37, abr./jun. 2002). Nicole Aubert proposes another concept: professional neurosis (AUBERT, Nicole. A neurose profissional. In: CHANLAT, Jean-François. O indivíduo na organização: dimensões esquecidas. São Paulo: Atlas, 1996. v. II).
- 104.
Indeed, this author has never made such experience with the frog, and hardly the result would be that described in the story. However, as that story is often cited and provides a good example, it is used here then.
- 105.
The model of stress of C. L. Cooper and R. Payne is an important reference (ROBBINS, Stephen. Comportamento organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Ltc Editora, 1999).
- 106.
There are several reports of feelings of terror and loss of confidence among workers at companies that have undergone downsizing and reengineering processes.
- 107.
Studies that deal with this issue are the most diverse, but they are all grounded on individual strategies in the face of situations of work. Some of them also deal with the theory of self-regulation. Paul M. Muchinsky presents a discussion on goals of individuals and their actions to achieve them, or even change these goals when they are difficult to be reached (MUCHINSKY, Paul M. Psicologia Organizacional. São Paulo: Pioneira Thompson Learning, 2004). Christopher Dejours is a reference on the subject (DEJOURS, Christophe. Uma nova visão do sofrimento humano nas organizações. In: CHANLAT, Jean-François. O individuo na organização: dimensões esquecidas. São Paulo: Atlas, 1996. v. I.). Researches provide examples of these individual strategies, such as negative patterns of behavior ranging from extended time of rest until the sabotage of the equipment and colleagues. These practices can appear even not consciously (see, for instance, MELO, Marlene Catarina O. L. Estratégias do trabalhador informático nas relações de trabalho. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 1991(relatório de pesquisa) and SPERLING, Luciana Grandi. Expectativas e estratégicas de auto-regulação dos gerentes frente a processos de reestruturação e modernização: um estudo em organizações da administração pública indireta. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2002 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Administração)).
- 108.
Criticisms appear on themes such as introjection, subjectivity and individual strategies. Often this is because some of them support themselves on theoretical basis and methodologies that are questioned within the mainstream of management studies.
- 109.
Mauricio Dias Tannus, grounded on L. Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance, alerts to the problems of modern management models and the negative consequences to individuals and organizations (DIAS, Mauricio Tannus. Pedagogia das organizações e saúde do trabalhador nos novos modelos de gestão. In: SAMPAIO, Jader dos Reis (org) Qualidade de vida, saúde mental e psicologia social: estudos contemporâneos II. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo, 1999). Some research can be cited presenting individual strategies aimed at adaptation and survival in modern workplaces that have undergone restructuring, and that can be seen as dysfunctional for the organization as, for example: ROCHA, Denilson R. A. O poder dos indivíduos: estratégias de sobrevivência e auto-regulação frente à dominação das organizações. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2000 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Administração); MELO, Marlene Catarina O. L. Estratégias do trabalhador informático nas relações de trabalho. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 1991 (relatório de pesquisa) and SPERLING, Luciana Grandi. Expectativas e estratégicas de auto-regulação dos gerentes frente a processos de reestruturação e modernização: um estudo em organizações da administração pública indireta. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2002 (Dissertação, Mestrado em Administração).
- 110.
Tom Peters is an author who, in his lectures, criticizes the Management courses. Henry Mintzberg, has recently written a book dealing with the matter.
- 111.
KATZ, Robert. As habilidades do executivo. Coleção Harvard de Administração. São Paulo: Nova Cultural, 1986.
- 112.
SENGE, Peter; FABIOLA Nobre e TAITO Nobre. Abram mão do poder. Revista Exame, 06/08/2003.
- 113.
BARNARD, Chester. As funções do executivo. São Paulo: Atlas, 1971.
- 114.
MINTZBERG, Henry. Trabalho do executivo: o folclore e o fato. In: Coleção Harvard de Administração. São Paulo: Nova Cultural, 1986.
- 115.
Win–lose and win–win negotiations can also be called distributive and integrative negotiations, respectively. See on this, for example, in LEWICKI, Roy L., SAUNDERS, David M. e MINTON, John W. Fundamentos da negociação. Porto Alegre: Bookman, 2002.
- 116.
This aspect is mentioned in chapter on strategy.
- 117.
Summary of the decision-making models cited here can be seen at OLIVEIRA, Nélio. Models and styles of decision-making: a research together with “Banco do Brasil” managers regarding the concession of credit to small rural entrepreneurs. In: Anais Balas. San Diego: Balas, 2001.
- 118.
According to S. Robbins, intuitive decision making can be considered as the one in which there is an unconscious process resulted from experience, not operating necessarily independently on rational analysis (ROBBINS, Stephen. Comportamento organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Ltc Editora, 1999).
- 119.
MOTTA, P. R. A ciência e a arte de ser dirigente. Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1991.
- 120.
Several studies have discussed the application of principles of the chaos theory and the complexity theory in management. (See, for instance, WOOD Jr., Thomaz. Teoria do caos e administração de empresas. In: WOOD, Thomas. (coord). Mudança organizacional. São Paulo: Atlas, 2000).
- 121.
One of the references on this discussion is Jeremy Rifkin, who in 1995 published the book O fim dos empregos (RIFKIN, Jeremy. O fim dos empregos: o declínio inevitável dos níveis dos empregos e a redução da força global de trabalho. São Paulo: Makron Books, 1995). In a recent interview, this author stated that he was very conservative when writing his book and the forms of automation have brought a level of unemployment higher than he imagined when he wrote it. (RIFKIN, Jeremy. Entrevista concedida. Revista Você SA, 13/11/2004).
- 122.
Several studies emphasize the precariousness of work currently as ALVES, G. O novo (e precário) mundo do trabalho: reestruturação produtiva e crise do sindicalismo. São Paulo: Boitempo Editorial, 2000. In the case of outsourcing, jobs in the contractor or subcontractor firms sometimes have lower benefits and worse working conditions than those found in companies that had outsourced their activities. Several research give evidence to this fact, e.g.: BICUDO,Valeria Rosa. Terceirização na Petrobrás: Implicações Sociais, Gerenciais e Políticas. In: Anais Enanpad. Atibaia: Anpad, 2003.
- 123.
Interesting article discusses this fact occurring in a large petrochemical company: Petrobrás: mudanças no rh, terceiros ganham status. Revista Exame, 10/12/2003.
- 124.
RIFKIN, Jeremy. O fim dos empregos: o declínio inevitável dos níveis dos empregos e a redução da força global de trabalho. São Paulo: Makron Books, 1995.
- 125.
It is worth noting the various actions of governments and organizations in promoting entrepreneurship today.
- 126.
CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômicos da automação. São Paulo: Ed. Busca Vida, 1989.
- 127.
This environment in which the large Machine Bureaucracies have strengthened is often characterized by labor relations scholars as Fordism, a model of economic and social development, according to the Regulation Theory. There would be, according to such theory, a virtuous circle on the creation of employment and income and an increasing demand (BOYER, Robert. A teoria da regulação: uma análise crítica. São Paulo: Nobel, 1990).
- 128.
CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Relações de trabalho e negociação coletiva na virada do milênio. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2001; CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira; CARVALHO, Ricardo Augusto Alves. Sindicalismo e negociação coletiva nos anos 90. Belo Horizonte: IRT/PUC Minas, 1998; NABUCO, Maria Regina. Relações de trabalho contemporâneas. Belo Horizonte: IRT/PUC Minas, 1998.
- 129.
This is discussed, for example, in CORIAT, Benjamin. A revolução dos robôs: os impactos socioeconômicos da automação. São Paulo: Ed. Busca Vida, 1989 and in NABUCO, Maria Regina; NEVES, Magda de Almeida e CARVALHO NETO, Antonio Moreira. Indústria automotiva: a nova geografia do setor produtivo. Rio de Janeiro: DP&A, 2002.
- 130.
SENNETT, Richard. A corrosão do caráter. Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1999.
- 131.
The research conducted by A. N. Turner and P. R. Lawrence in 1950s, which presents differences between workers that came from rural and urban areas, is a reference on this matter. The studies of J. R. Hackman and G. R. Oldham on work redesigned in 1970s took this fact into account (See: ROBBINS, Stephen. Comportamento organizacional. Rio de Janeiro: Ltc Editora, 1999 and HACKMAN, J. R., and OLDHAM, G.R. Work Redesign. Illinois: 1979).
- 132.
CASTELLS, Manuel. Fim de milênio. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2000; CASTELLS, Manuel. O poder da identidade. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2002; GIDDENS, Anthony. As conseqüências da modernidade. São Paulo: Editora UNESP, 1991; TOURAINE, Alain. Poderemos viver juntos? Petrópolis: Vozes, 2003.
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Oliveira, N. (2012). The Automated Bureaucracy. In: Automated Organizations. Contributions to Management Science. Physica-Verlag HD. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7908-2759-0_10
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