Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Framework of Services Offshoring

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Services Offshoring and its Impact on the Labor Market

Part of the book series: Contributions to Economics ((CE))

  • 654 Accesses

Abstract

In this second chapter, we develop a “Framework of Services Offshoring”, which contains a thorough analysis of the classification and drivers of services offshoring. The classification, in Sect. 2.1, examines how services offshoring is defined, which forms it can take, and which service activities are involved. First, we compare and contrast outsourcing and offshoring before deriving our own working definition of services offshoring. Second, we focus on the service part of services offshoring, defining services and describing the implications of their new tradability. We also classify services trade and the relevant service activities. Third, we focus on the offshoring part of services offshoring and discuss the make-or-buy decision in efficiency-based, resource-based, and transaction costs-based theories of firms. Section 2.2 identifies the main drivers of services offshoring. We first describe changes in the global environment, namely developments in ICTs as well as multilateral and regional liberalization of trade in services. We then discuss market-oriented, cost-oriented, and procurement-oriented services offshoring motives of firms, also including newer developments. Finally, we focus on developments in the destination countries, namely the availability of human capital, the presence of multinational companies, and the liberalization of service sectors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Theoretically, one could also imagine a firm that previously outsourced to a domestic supplier and instead builds a subsidiary abroad (from 2 to 3). Practically, however, this might rarely be the case, as the foreign subsidiary requires internal knowledge about processes and services that are no longer performed in-house.

  2. 2.

    The Manual conforms with and explicitly relates to the SNA 1993 and the fifth edition of the IMF's Balance of Payments Manual.

  3. 3.

    Sectors within the classification of the German Federal Statistical Office: 45, 47–53, 56, 58, 69–71.

  4. 4.

    Sectors within the classification of the German Federal Statistical Office: 63–68.

  5. 5.

    Besides the provision of packaged (non-customized) software, non-specific computer training courses are excluded from computer services, as the first is classified as goods and the latter belongs to other personal, cultural, and recreational services. The download of software via the internet was being discussed during the preparation of the Manual.

  6. 6.

    Mahoney and Pandian (1992) also outline that unique capabilities in the strategic management literature “are important sources of heterogeneity that may result in sustained competitive advantage” (Mahoney and Pandian, 1992, p. 365).

  7. 7.

    According to Williamson (2000), four levels of social analysis can be distinguished, namely the social theory at the first level, the property rights theory at the second level, the TAC-based approach at the third level, and the principal-agent-theory at the fourth level. Our study is largely interested in the TAC-based approach, which extends the informal rules of the first level (e.g., sanctions, customs, traditions, codes of conduct) and formal rules of the second level (e.g., constitutions, laws, property rights) by also integrating contractual relationships (Williamson 2000).

  8. 8.

    Williamson rejects the neoclassical model, where competition promotes efficiency on product and capital markets by squeezing inefficient firms out of the markets.

  9. 9.

    Incomplete contracts have been used in several models to explain the make-or-buy decision of a firm (e.g., Antràs 2003). Among these, Ethier (1986) stresses the aspect of information asymmetries between firms, that make it difficult for firms to control the amount of research endeavours of the adverse party and to formulate an incentive-compatible contract. Besides, the required quality is difficult to integrate into a contract.

  10. 10.

    The introductory notes on the following two pages have been taken and modified from Milberg and Schöller (2008).

  11. 11.

    The Kondratieff-waves, also called grand supercycles, have a length of between 45 and 60 years.

  12. 12.

    See http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/gatsqa_e.htm

  13. 13.

    Most of the information is retrieved from the homepage of the WTO (http://www.wto.org).

  14. 14.

    See http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_19_en.htm

  15. 15.

    Note that the tradability of services also contains the possibility of closing down a foreign presence or of reducing foreign production by serving the foreign market with increased domestic exports.

  16. 16.

    See Milberg (2007) for an overview of the expansion of EPZs in the 2000s.

References

  • Abraham KG, Taylor SK (1996) Firms' use of outside contractors: theory and evidence. J Labor Econ 14(3):394–424

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abramovsky L, Griffith R, Sako M (2004) Offshoring of business services and its impact on the UK economy. November 2004. Advanced Institute of Management Research, London Business School, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Amiti M, Wei SJ (2005) Fear of service outsourcing: is it justified?. Econ Policy 20(42):308–347

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderton B, Brenton P, Oscarsson E (2002) Outsourcing and inequality. CEPS Working Document, No. 187, October 2002

    Google Scholar 

  • Antràs P (2003) Firms, contracts, and trade structure. Quart J Econ 118(4):1375–1418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antràs P, Helpman E (2004) Global sourcing. J Political Econ 112(3):552–580

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antràs P, Garicano L, Rossi-Hansberg E (2006) Offshoring in a knowledge economy. Quart J Econ 121(1):31–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Arora A, Gambardella A (2004) The globalization of the software industry: perspectives and opportunities for developed and developing countries. NBER Working Paper, No. 10538, June 2004

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin R (2006) Globalisation: the great unbundling(s). Paper for the Finnish Prime Minister's Office, September 2006. Economic Council of Finland

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartel A, Lach PS, Sicherman N (2005) Outsourcing and technological change. NBER Working Paper, No. 11158, February 2005

    Google Scholar 

  • Barth D (1998) Perspektiven des internationalen Dienstleistungshandels. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Bonn

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedi AS (1999) The role of information and communication technologies in economic development, a partial survey. ZEF Discussion Papers on Development Policy, No. 7, May 1999

    Google Scholar 

  • Berle AA, Means GC (1932) The modern corporation and private property. Harcourt, Brace & World, New York [1932] 1968

    Google Scholar 

  • Best M, Garnsey E (1999) Edith Penrose, 1914–1996. Econ J 109(453):187–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beyfuß J, Eggert J (2000) Auslandsinvestitionen der deutschen Wirtschaft und ihre Arbeitsplatzeffekte: Aktuelle Trends, Ergebnisse einer Unternehmensbefragung und die Bedeutung der staatlichen Förderung. Beiträge zur Wirtschafts- und Sozialpolitik 258 (4):

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhagwati J (1987) Trade in services and the multilateral trade negotiations. World Bank Econ Rev 1(4):549–569

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhagwati, Jagdish (1984) Splintering and disembodiment of services and developing nations, World Economy 7(2):133–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhagwati J, Panagariya A, Srinivasan TN (2004) The muddles over outsourcing. J Econ Perspect 18(4):93–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boes A (2004) Industrialisierung und Internationalisierung von IT-Dienstleistungen, Voraussetzungen und Konsequenzen von Offshoring. Arbeitspapier 7 des Projekts ARB-IT 2, March 2004. München: ISF

    Google Scholar 

  • Borrmann C (2001) Standort Deutschland im internationalen Verbund. Nomos, Baden-Baden

    Google Scholar 

  • Botelho AJ, Stefanuto G, Veloso F (2005) The Brazilian software industry, in from underdog to tigers: the rise and growth of the software industry in some emerging economies, Arora A and Gambardella A (eds.), pp 99–130, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Browning HL, Singelmann J (1975) The emergence of a service society: demographic and sociological aspects of the sectoral transformation of the labor force in the U.S.A. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA

    Google Scholar 

  • Chanda R (2006) Intermodal linkages in services trade. OECD Trade Policy Working Paper, No. 30, January 2006

    Google Scholar 

  • Coase RH (1937) The nature of the firm. Economica 4(16):386–405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cronin B, Catchpowle L, Hall D (2004) Outsourcing and offshoring. CESifo Forum 2:17–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Deavers KL (1997) Outsourcing: a corporate competitiveness strategy, not a search for low wages. J Labor Res 18(4):503–519

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deutsche Bundesbank (2006a) Balance of payments by region. Special statistical publication, No. 11, August 2006

    Google Scholar 

  • Deutsche Bundesbank (2006b) Technologische Dienstleistungen in der Zahlungsbilanz. Special Statistical Publication, No. 12, June 2006

    Google Scholar 

  • DIHK (2007) Kluge Köpfe – vergeblich gesucht! Fachkräftemangel in der deutschen Wirtschaft, Ergebnisse einer DIHK-Unternehmensbefragung. Fall 2007

    Google Scholar 

  • Douma S, Schreuder H (1998) Economic approaches to organizations. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Erber G, Sayed-Ahmed A (2005) Offshore outsourcing, a global shift in the present IT industry. Intereconomics 40(2):100–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ethier WJ (1986) The multinational firm. Quart J Econ 101(4):805–833

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EU (2008) A single market for services. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_19_en.htm

  • Foss NJ (1997) Equilibrium vs evolution in the resource-based perspective: The conflicting legacies of Demsetz and Penrose. DRUID Working Paper, No. 97–10, October 1997

    Google Scholar 

  • Foss NJ (1998) Edith Penrose and the Penrosians – or, why there is still so much to learn from the theory of the growth of the firm. January 1998. Denmark: Department of Industrial Economics and Strategy, Copenhagen Business School

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman R (2007) The expansion of the global labor supply. In: Paus E (ed) Global capitalism unbound: winners and losers from offshore outsourcing. Palgrave Macmillan, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Garner CA (2004) Offshoring in the service sector: economic impact and policy issues. Econ Rev Q3:5–37. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaston N, Nelson D (2001) Multinational location decisions and the impact on labour markets. ZEF-Discussion Papers on Development Policy, No. 37, May 2001

    Google Scholar 

  • Giarratana M, Torrisi S, Pagano A (2005) The Role of multinational companies, in from underdog to tigers: The rise and growth of the software industry in some emerging economies, Arora A and Gambardella A (eds.), pp 207–235, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Girma S, Görg H (2003) Outsourcing, foreign ownership and productivity: evidence from UK establishment level data. DIW Discussion Papers, No. 361, August 2003

    Google Scholar 

  • Görg H, Strobl E (2002) Multinational companies and indigenous development: an empirical analysis. Eur Econ Rev 46(7):1305–1322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Görzig B, Stephan A (2002) Outsourcing and firm-level performance. DIW Discussion Paper, No. 309, October 2002

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant RM (1996) Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm. Strategic Manage J 17:109–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman GM, Helpman E (2002) Integration versus outsourcing in industry equilibrium. Quart J Econ 117(1):85–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman GM, Helpman E (2004) Managerial incentives and the international organization of production. J Int Econ 63(2):237–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman GM, Helpman E (2005) Outsourcing in a global economy. Rev Econ Stud 72(1):135–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman GM, Rossi-Hansberg E (2006a) The rise of offshoring: it's not wine for cloth anymore. Paper presented at The New Economic Geography: Effects and Policy Implications. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Jackson Hole, pp 59–102

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossman GM, Rossi-Hansberg E (2006b) Trading tasks: a simple theory of offshoring. NBER Working Paper, No. 12721, December 2006

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamelink, Ceese (1997) New information and communication technologies, social development and cultural change. UNRISD Discussion Paper No. 86, June 1997

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatzius J (2000) Foreign direct investment and factor demand elasticies. Eur Econ Rev 44(1):117–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helleiner GK (1973) Manufactured exports from less-developed countries and multinational firms. Econ J 83(329):21–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henneberger F, Ziegler A (1998) Beschäftigungseffekte von Direktinvestitionen: Die gewählte Methodik beeinflusst das Ergebnis. Wirtschaftspolitische Blätter 45(6):554–563

    Google Scholar 

  • Henneberger F, Ziegler A (2001) Internationalisierung der Dienstleistungserstellung: Konsequenzen für den schweizerischen Arbeitsmarkt. HWWA Discussion Paper, No. 149

    Google Scholar 

  • Henneberger F, Graf S, Vocke M (2000) Globalisierung und Arbeitsmarkt: Auslandsinvestitionen von Dienstleistungsunternehmen und ihre Auswirkungen auf die Beschäftigung (1st ed.). Baden-Baden

    Google Scholar 

  • Heshmati A (2003) Productivity growth, efficiency and outsourcing in manufacturing and service industries. J Econ Surv 17(1):79–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill TP (1977) On goods and services. Revi Income Wealth 23(4):315–338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill CWL (2003) International business: competing in the global marketplace. McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoekman B (2006) Trade in services, trade agreements and economic development: a survey of the literature. CEPR Discussion Paper, No. 5760, July 2006

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoekman B, Sauvé P (1994) Regional and multilateral liberalization of trade in services: complements or substitutes?. J Common Market Stud 32(3):283–317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutzschenreuter T, Dressel S, Ressler W (2007) Offshoring von Zentralbereichen, Von den Erfahrungen deutscher und amerikanischer Unternehmen lernen. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • IMF (2000) Offshore financial centers. IMF Background Paper, June 2000. Prepared by the Monetary and Exchange Affairs Department

    Google Scholar 

  • Jungnickel R, Keller D (2003) German FDI and integration of production in the EU. HWWA Discussion Paper, No. 232

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahn J (2008) Recession trickles to India, New York Times, 3 December 2008

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalmbach P, Franke R, Knottenbauer K, Krämer H (2005) Die Interdependenz von Industrie und Dienstleistungen, Zur Dynamik eines komplexen Beziehungsgeflechts. Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Kapur D, McHale J (2005) Sojourns and Software: Internationally mobile human capital and high-tech industry development in India, Ireland, and Israel, in from underdog to tigers: The rise and growth of the software industry in some emerging economies, Arora A and Gambardella A (eds.), pp 236–274, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkegaard JF (2004) Offshore outsourcing – much ado about what? CESifo Forum 2/2004:22–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Koman R, Marin D (2000) Human capital and macroeconomic growth: Austria and Germany 1960–1997. Münchner Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Beiträge

    Google Scholar 

  • Kox H, Lejour A (2006) The effects of the services directive on intra-EU trade and FDI. Revue Econ 57(4):747–769

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levy DL (2005) Offshoring in the new global political economy. J Manage Stud 42(3):685–693

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liebeskind JP (1996) Knowledge, strategy, and the theory of the firm. Strategic Manage J 17:93–107

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney JT, Pandian JR (1992) The resource-based view within the conversation of strategic management. Strategic Manage J 13(5):363–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marin D (2004) A nation of poets and thinkers – less so with eastern enlargement? Austria and Germany. CEPR Working Paper, No. 4358, March 2004

    Google Scholar 

  • Marin D, Verdier TA (2003a) Globalization and the empowerment of talent. CEPR Discussion Paper, No. 4129

    Google Scholar 

  • Marin D, Verdier TA (2003b) Globalization and the new enterprise. J Eur Econ Assoc 1(2–3):337–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markusen JR, Venables AJ (1999) Foreign direct investment as a catalyst for industrial development. Eur Econ Rev 43(2):335–356

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattoo A (2001) Shaping future GATS rules for trade in services. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, No. 2596, April 2001

    Google Scholar 

  • Mattoo A, Wunsch-Vincent S (2004) Pre-empting protectionism in services: The WTO and outsourcing. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, No. 3237, March 2004

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaren JE (2000) ‘Globalization’ and vertical integration. Am Econ Rev 90(5):1239–1254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milberg W (2007) Export processing zones, industrial upgrading and economic development. International Labor Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Milberg W, Schöller D (2008) Globalization, offshoring and economic insecurity in industrialized countries. World Economic and Social Survey 2008 Background Paper. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Mill JS (1852) Principles of political economy. N Am Rev 98(202):270–273

    Google Scholar 

  • Moczadlo R (2004) Chancen und Risiken des Offhore-Development, Empirische Analyse der Erfahrungen deutscher Unternehmen. Retrieved from http://www.verdi-it.de/it-fachtagung/r-moczadlo_verdi-fachtagung-it-offshoring-12032004.pdf

  • Mosdorf S (1998) Arbeit 21, Gesellschaft der Zukunft – Information und Dienstleistung. In: Mangold K (ed), Die Welt der Dienstleistung – Perspektiven für Arbeit und Gesellschaft im 21. Jahrhundert (reprint of 1st ed) Frankfurt am Main, pp 171–183

    Google Scholar 

  • NASSCOM (2006a) 2007 strategic review, executive summary. Retrieved from http://www.nasscom.in/upload/51054/Executive%20Summary.pdf

  • NASSCOM (2006b) Knowledge professionals. Retrieved from http://www.nasscom.in/Nasscom/templates/NormalPage.aspx?id = 6314

  • NASSCOM (2006c) Knowledge professionals in India. Press Information Note. Retrieved from http://www.nasscom.in/upload/5216/nasscom%20knowledge%20professionals%20factsheet%202006.pdf

  • NASSCOM (2007a) NASSCOM's education initiatives, Sustaining India's talent edge to fuel the next wave of IT–BPO industry growth. Press Information Note. Retrieved from http://www.nasscom.in/upload/5216/July%205%202007%20%20Education%20Initiatives-Final.doc

  • NASSCOM (2007b) Planting seeds, growing PhDs, Economic Times. Retrieved from http://www.nasscom.in/Nasscom/templates/NormalPage.aspx?id = 52468

  • NASSCOM, McKinsey Global Institute (2005) The NASSCOM-McKinsey Report 2005: Outlining a success strategy for India's offshore IT–BPO industries! NASSCOM Newsline, 50. Retrieved from http://www.nasscom.in/Nasscom/templates/NormalPage.aspx?id = 11075

  • neoIT (2006) Offshore insights. Market Rep Ser 4(4), pp 1–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Overby S (2003) The hidden costs of offshore outsourcing. CIO Mag. Retrieved from http://www.cio.com/article/29654

  • Pain N, van Welsum D (2004) International production relocation and exports of services. OECD Economic Studies, No. 38, 2004/1. OECD, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Penrose ET (1959) The theory of the growth of the firm, 1st ed. Basil Blackwell, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Picot A (1982) In der Organisationstheorie – Stand der Diskussion und Aussagewert. Die Betriebswirtschaft 42:267–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Picot A (1991) Ein neuer Ansatz zur Gestaltung der Leistungstiefe. Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung 43:336–357

    Google Scholar 

  • Prahalad CK, Hamel G (1990) The core competence of the corporation. Harv Bus Rev 68(3):79–91

    Google Scholar 

  • Pujals G (2005) Offshore outsourcing in the EU financial services industry, Special policy issue – EUROFRAME-EFN Report, Spring 2005: OFCE

    Google Scholar 

  • Roling J (1999) Bedeuten deutsche Direktinvestitionen im Ausland einen Export' deutscher Arbeitsplätze?. Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftspolitik 48(2):147–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Rumelt RP (1984) Towards a strategic theory of the firm. In: Lamb R (ed.) Competitive strategic management. Prentice-Hall, Englewoods Cliffs, NJ, pp 556–570

    Google Scholar 

  • Sachverständigenrat zur Begutachtung der gesamtwirtschaftlichen Entwicklung (2001) Für Stetigkeit – gegen Aktionismus, Annual Report 2001/2002

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaaf J (2004) Offshoring: globalisation wave reaches services sector, digital economy and structural change No. 45, 27-Sep-04: Deutsche Bank Research

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharpe M (1997) Outsourcing, organizational competitiveness, and work. J Labor Res 18(4):335–349

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sinn HW (2005) Basarökonomie Deutschland: Exportweltmeister oder Schlusslicht? ifo Schnelldienst, No. 6, March 2005

    Google Scholar 

  • Slater M (1980) The managerial limitation to the growth of firms. Econ J 90(359):520–528

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith A (1776) An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations

    Google Scholar 

  • Soci A (2003) FDI and the process of European integration: a brief overview. J Econ Integr 18(4):642–660

    Google Scholar 

  • Spender JC (1996) Making knowledge the basis of a dynamic theory of the firm. Strategic Manage J 17:45–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Srivasta J, Jalote P (2007) Pump priming with US horsepower. Econ Times, 17 September 2007

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson SM (2002) Regional versus multilateral liberalization of services. World Trade Rev 1(2):187–209

    Google Scholar 

  • The Economist (1996) 28 Septemer 1996

    Google Scholar 

  • The Economist (2003) Relocating the back office, Special report offshoring. The Economist, 13 December 2003

    Google Scholar 

  • Trabold H, Bach S, Franzmeyer F, Schultz S, Schumacher D, Weise C (2001) Herausforderung Globalisierung: Konsequenzen für die Bildungs-, Steuer- und Arbeitsmarktpolitik. Schüren, Marburg

    Google Scholar 

  • Tschang T, Xue L (2005) The Chinese software Industry: The implications of a changing domestic market for software enterprises, in from underdog to tigers: The rise and growth of the software industry in some emerging economies, Arora A and Gambardella A (eds.), pp 131–170, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Tschang T, Xue L (2005) The Chinese software Industry: The implications of a changing domestic market for software enterprises, in from underdog to tigers: The rise and growth of the software industry in some emerging economies, Arora A and Gambardella A (eds.), pp 131–170, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Tüselmann HJ (1998) Deutsche Auslandsinvestitionen in den neunziger Jahren: Abwanderung der deutschen Industrie und Abbau von Arbeitsplätzen?. WSI Mitteilungen 5:292–303

    Google Scholar 

  • UN (1974) Yearbook of national accounts statistics, Vol. 1. p. xxix

    Google Scholar 

  • UN (2002) Manual on statistics of international trade in services. Statistical Papers, Series M No. 86. United Nations, Geneva, Luxembourg, New York, Paris, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • UNCTAD (2004) The shift towards services, World Investment Report 2004. United Nations, New York and Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • UNCTAD (2006) ICT diffusion index 2005, The digital divide report. United Nations, New York and Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • UNCTAD, Roland Berger (2004) Service offshoring takes off in Europe – in search of improved competitiveness, service offshoring, June 2004

    Google Scholar 

  • van Welsum D (2004) In search of ‘off shoring’: evidence from U.S. imports of services. Birbeck Working Papers in Economics & Finance, No. 0402, September 2004

    Google Scholar 

  • Vang J (2003) Organization of the news industry, the case of ‘making-or-buying’ articles. DRUID Working Paper, No. 3–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Wernerfelt B (1984) A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Manage J 5(2):171–180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson OE (1973) Markets and hierarchies: some elementary considerations. Am Econ Rev 63(2):316–325

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson OE (1975) Markets and hierarchies: analysis and antitrust implications, a study in the economics of internal organization. New York, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson OE (1985) The economic institutions of capitalism: firms, markets, relational contracting. Simon & Schuster, New YorkSimon

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson OE (1996) Transaktionskostenökonomik. In: Dietl H, Erlei C, Erlei M, Leschke M (eds). Ökonomische Theorie der Institutionen, 2nd ed, vol 3. Hamburg

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson OE (2000) The new institutional economics: taking stock, looking ahead. J Econ Lit 38(3):595–613

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson OE (2002) The theory of the firm as governance structure: from choice to contract. J Econ Perspect 16(3):171–195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank (2007) World development indicators 2007. http://www.worldbank.org/

  • World Economic Forum (2007) The global information technology report 2006–2007, Connecting to the networked economy, 6th ed. Palgrave MacMillan, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • WTO (1999) An introduction to the GATS. Trade in Services Division, WTO Secretariat, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WTO (2004) International trade statistics 2004. http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/its2004_e/its04_toc_e.htm

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Business, Economics and Social Sciences, University of Hohenheim, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany

    Dr. Deborah Winkler

Authors
  1. Dr. Deborah Winkler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Deborah Winkler .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Physica-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Winkler, D. (2009). Framework of Services Offshoring. In: Services Offshoring and its Impact on the Labor Market. Contributions to Economics. Physica-Verlag HD. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7908-2199-4_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation