Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Apoptosis in neurodegenerative disorders

  • Conference paper
Advances in Research on Neurodegeneration

Part of the book series: Journal of Neural Transmission. Supplementa ((NEURAL SUPPL,volume 50))

Summary

Although the exact mechanism of nigral cell death in Parkinson’s disease (PD) is not known, increasing evidence suggests the presence of apoptotic cell death in PD. When we applied the TUNEL method to detect DNA fragmentation, four out of seven late onset sporadic patients with PD showed TUNEL-positive neurons. The percentages of those neurons among the remaining melanin containing neurons were 0.6 to 4.8% (average 2.1%). But TUNEL-positive neurons could not be detected in control subjects as well as four patients with young onset (under 40 years of the age) PD. Numbers of nigral toxins such as MPTP, complex I inhibitors, and mitochondrial respiratory inhibitors have been reported to induced apoptotic cell death. These findings suggest that apoptosis is involved in nigral cell cleath in PD at least in part and warrant further studies on apoptosis-related substances in PD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Anglade P, Vyas S, Jovoy-Agid F, Herrero MT, Michel PP, Marquez J, Mouatt-Prigent A, Ruberg M, Hirsch BC, Agid Y (1995) Apoptotic degeneration of nigral dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease. Society for Neuroscience Abstract 21 (Part 1): 1250

    Google Scholar 

  • Behl C, Davis B, Klier FG, Schubert H (1994) Amyloid beta peptide induces necrosis rather than apoptosis. Brain Res 645: 253–264

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boka G, Anglade P, Wallach D, Agid J, Agid Y, Hirsch EC (1994) Immunohistochemical analysis of tumor necrosis factor and its receptors in Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci Lett 172: 151–154

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bredesen DE (1995) Neural apoptosis. Ann Neurol 38: 839–851

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown RH, Jr (1995) Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: recent insights form genetics and transgenic mice. Cell 80: 687–692

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bump NJ, Hackett M, Hugunin M, Seshagiri S, Brady K, Chen P, Ferenz C, Franklin S, Ghayur T, Li P, Licari P, Mankovich J, Shi L, Greenberg AH, Miller LK, Wong WW (1995) Inhibition of ICE family proteases by baculovirus antiapoptotic protein p35. Science 269: 1885–1888

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi DW, Maulucci-Gedde MA, Kriegstein AR (1987) Glutamate neurotoxicity in cortical cell cultures. J Neurosci 7: 357–368

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke PG (1990) Developmental cell death: morphological diversity and multiple mechanisms. Anat Embryol 181: 195–213

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clem RJ, Miller LK (1994) Control of programmed cell death by the baculovirus genes p35 and IAP. Mol Cell Biol 14: 5212–5222

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen JJ (1991) Programmed cell death in the immune system. Adv Immunol 50: 55–85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen JJ (1993) Apoptosis. Immunol Today 14: 126–130

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dipasquale B, Marini M, Youl RJ (1991) Apoptosis and DNA degradation by 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium in neurons. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 181: 1442–1448

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dragunow M, Faull RLM, Lawlor P, Beilharz EJ, Singleton K, Walker EB, Mee E (1995) In situ evidence for DNA fragmentation in Huntington’s disease striatum and Alzheimer’s disease temporal lobes. Neuro Report 6: 1053–1057

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Engele J, Bohn MC (1991) The neurotrophic effects of fibroblast growth factors on dopaminergic neurons in vitro are mediated by mesencephalic glia. J Neurosci 11: 3070–3078

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Esteban J, Rosen DR, Bowling AC, Sapp P, McKenna-Yasek D, O’Regan JP, Beal MF, Horvitz HR, Brown RH Jr (1994) Identification of two novel mutations and a new polymorphism in the gene for Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase in patients with amyorophic lateral sclerosis. Hum Mol Genetics 3: 997–998

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forloni G, Chiesa R, Smiroldo S, Verga L, Salmone M, Tagliavini F, Angeretti N (1993) Apoptosis-/mediated neurotoxicity induced by chronic application of beta amyloid fragment. Neuro Report 4: 523–526

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Finiels F, Robert JJ, Samolyk ML, Privat A, Mallet J, Revah F (1995) Induction of neuronal apoptosis by excitotoxins associated with long-lasting increase of 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate-responsive element-binding activity. J Neurochem 65: 1027–1034

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friesen PD, Miller LK (1987) Divergent transcription of early 35- and 94-kilodalton protein genes encoded by the HindIIIK gene genome fragment of the baculovirus Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus. J Virol 61: 2264–2272

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gash DM, Zhang Z, Ovadia A, Cass WA, Yi A, Simmerman L, Russell D, Martin D, Lapchak PA, Collins F, Hoffer BJ, Gerhardt GA (1996) Functional recovery in parkinsonian monkeys treated with GDNF. Nature 380: 252–255

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia I, Martinou I, Tsujimoto, Martinou JC (1992) Prevention of programmed cell death of sympathetic neurons by the bcl-2 proto-oncogene. Science 258: 302–304

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gold R, Schmied M, Giegerich G, Breitschopf H, Hartung HP, Toyka KV, Lassmann H (1994) Differentiation between cellular apoptosis and necrosis by the combined use of in situ tailing and nick translation techniques. Lab Invest 71: 219–225

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grasl-Kraupp B, Ruttkay-Nedecky B, Koudelka H, Bukowska K, Bursch W, Schulte-Hermann R (1995) In situ detection of fragmented DNA (TUNEL assay) fails to discriminate among apoptosis, necrosis, and autolytic cell death: a cautionary note. Hepatology 21: 1465–1468

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenlund LJS, Deckwerth TL, Johnson EM Jr (1995) Superoxide dismutase delays neuronal apoptosis: a role for reactive oxygen species in programmed neuronal death. Neuron 14: 303–315

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gurney ME, Pu H, Chiu AY, Dal Canto MC, Polchow CY, Alexander DD, Caliendo J, Hentati A, Kwon YW, Deng HX, Chen W, Zhai P, Sufit RL, Siddique T (1994) Motor neuron degeneration in mice that express a human Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase mutation. Science 264: 1772–1775

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley A, Stone JM, Heron C, cooper JM, Schapira AHV (1994) Complex I inhibitors induce dose-dependent apoptosis in PC12 cells: relevance to Parkinson’s disease. J Neurochem 63: 1987–1990

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hengartner MP, Horvitz HR (1994) C. elegans cell survival gene ced-9 encodes a functional homolog of the mammalian protooncogene bc1-2. Cell 76: 665–676

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hiraishi K, Suzuki K, Hakomori S, Adachi M (1993) LeY antigen expression is correlated with apoptosis (programmed cell death). Glycobiology 3: 381–390

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Itano Y, Kitamura Y, Nomura Y (1994) 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+)-induced cell death in PC12 cells: inhibitory effects of several drugs. Neurochem Int 25: 419–425

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Javitch JA, D’Amato RJ, Strittmatter SM, Snyder SH (1985) Parkinsonism-inducing neurotoxin, N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine: uptake of the metabolite N-methyl-4-phenylpyridine by dopamine neurons explains selective toxicity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82: 2173–2177

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jenner P, Dexter DT, Sian J, Schapira AHV, Marsden CG (1992) Oxidative stress as a cause of nigral cell death in Parkinson’s disease and incidental Lewy body disease. Ann Neurol 32: S82–S87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kane DJ, Sarafian TA, Anton R, Hahn H, Gralla EB, Valentine JS, Ă–rd T, Bredesen DE (1993) Bc1-s inhibition of neural death: decreased generation of reactive oxygen species. Science 262: 1274–1277

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr JFR, Wyllie AH, Currie AR (1972) Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br J Cancer 26: 239–257

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kitajima I, Kawahara K, Nakajima T, Soejima Y, Matsuyama T, Maruyama I (1994) Nitric oxide-mediated apoptosis in murine mastocytoma. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 204: 244–251

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lassmann H, Bancher C, Breitschopf H, Wegiel J, Bobinski M, Jellinger K, Wisniewski HM (1995) Cell death in Alzheimer’s disease evaluated by DNA fragmentation in situ. Acta Neuropathol 89: 35–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin LF, Doherty D, Lile J, Bektesh S, Collins F (1993) GDNF: a glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor for midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Science 260: 1130–1132

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liston P, Roy N, Tamai K, Lefebre C, Baird S, Cherton-Hovat G, Farahani R, McLean M, Ikeda JE, MacKenzie A, Korneluk RG (1996) Suppression of apoptosis in mammalian cells by NAIP and a related family of IAP genes. Nature 379: 349–353

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lockshin R, Beaulaton J (1974) Programmed cell death. Life Sci 15: 1549–1565

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lockshin RA, Williams CM (1964) Programmed cell death. II. Endocrine potentiation of the breakdown of the intersegmental muscles of silkmoths. J Insect Physiol 10: 643–649

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loo DT, Copani A, Pike CJ, Whitemore ER, Walencewicz AJ, Cotman CW (1993) Apoptosis is induced by Ăź-amyloid in cultured central nervous system neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 7951–7955

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Macaya A, Munell F, Gubits RM, Burke RE (1994) Apoptosis in substantia nigra following developmental striatal excitotoxic injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 8117–8121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mah SP, Zhong LT, Liu Y, Edwards RH, Bredesen DE (1993) The protooncogene bcl-2 inhibits apoptosis in PC12 cells. J Neurochem 60: 1183–1186

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin SJ, Green DR (1995) Protease activation during apoptosis: death by a thousand cuts? Cell 82: 1–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinou JC, Dubois-Dauphin M, Staple JK, Rodoriguez I, Frankowski H, Missotten M, Albertini P, Talabot D, Carsicas S, Pietra C, Huarte J (1994) Overexpression of BCL-2 in transgenic mice protects neurons from naturally occurring cell death and expermental ischemia. Neuron 13: 1017–1030

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Migheli A, Cavalla P, Piva R, Giordana MT, Schiffer D (1994) Bcl-2 protein expression in aged and neurodegenerative diseases. Clin Neurosci Neuropath 5: 1906–1908

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mizuno Y, Saitoh T, Sone N (1987) Inhibition of mitochondrial NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase activity by l-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 143: 294–299

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mizuno Y, Ikebe S, Hattori N, Nakagawa-Hattori H, Mochizuki H, Tanaka M, Ozawa T (1995) Role of mitochondria in the etiology and pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 1271: 265–274

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mochizuki H, Nakamura N, Nishi K, Mizuno Y (1994) Apoptosis is induced by 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP+) in a ventral mesencephalic-striatal co-culture. Neurosci Lett 170: 191–194

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mochizuki H, Goto G, Mori H, Mizuno Y (1996) Histochemical detection of apoptosis in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Sci (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Mogi M, Harada M, Riederer P, Narabayashi H, Fujita K, Nagatsu T (1994) Tumor necrosis-α (TNF- α) increase both in the brain and in the cerebrospinal fluid from parkinsonian patients. Neurosci Lett 165: 208–210

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mogi M, Harada M, Kondo T, Riederer P, Inagaki H, Minami M, Nagatsu T (1994) Interleukin-1Ăź, epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factor- α are elevated in the brain from parkinsonian patients. Neurosci Lett 180: 147–150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Munsat TL (1991) Workshop report: international SMA collaboration. Neuromusc Disord 1: 81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers KM, Fiskum G, Liu Y, Simmens SJ, Bredesen DE, Murphy AN (1995) Bcl-s protects neural cells from cyanide/aglycemia induced Upid oxidation, mitochondrial injury, and loss of viability. J Neurochem 65: 2432–2440

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson DW, Ali A, Thornberry NA, Vaillancourt JP, Ding CK, Gallant M, Gareau Y, Griffin PR, Labelle M, Lazebnik YA, Munday NA, Raju SM, Smulson ME, Yamin TT, Yu VL, Miller DK (1995) Identification and inhibition of the ICE/CED-3 protease necessary for mammalian apoptosis. Nature 376: 37–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Otto D, Unsicker K (1990) Basic FGF reverses chemical and morphological deficits in the nigrostriatal system of MPTP-treated mice. J Neurosci 10: 1912–1921

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Portera-Cailliau C, Hedreen JC, Price DL, Koliatsos VE (1995) Evidence for apoptotic cell death in Huntington disease and excitotoxic animal models. J Neurosci 15: 3775–3787

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rabizabeh S, LaCount DJ, Friesen PD, Bredesen DE (1993) Expression of the baculo-virus p35 gene inhibits mammalian neural cell death. J Neurochem 61: 2318–2321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rabizabeh S, Gralla EB, Borchelt DR, Gwinn R, Valentine JS, Sisodia S, Wong P, Lee M, Hahn H, Bredesen DE (1995) Mutations associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis convert superoxide dismutase from antiapoptotic gene to a proapoptotic gene: studies in yeast and neural cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 3024–3028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen ER, Siddique T, Patterson D, Figlewicz DA, Sapp P, Hentati A, Donaldson D, Goto J, O’Regan JP, Deng HX, Rahmani Z, Krizus A, McKenna-Yasek D, Cayabyab A, Gaston SM, Berger R, Tanzi RE, Halperin JJ, Herzfeldt B, Van den Bergh R, Hung WY, Bird T, Deng G, Mulder DW, Smyth C, Laing NG, Soriano E, Pericak-Vance MA, Haines J, Rouleau GA, Gusella S, Horvitz HR, Brown RH Jr (1993) Mutations in Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase gene are associated with familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Nature 362: 59–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roy N, Mahadevan MS, McLean M, Shutler G, Yaraghi Z, Farahani R, Baird S, Besner-Johnston A, Lefebvre C, Kang X, Salih M, Aubry H, Tamai K, Guan X, Ioannou P, Crawford TO, de Jong PJ, Surh L, Ikeda J, Korneluk RG, MacKenzie A (1995) The gene for neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein is partially deleted in individuals with spinal muscular atrophy. Cell 80: 167–178

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schapira AHV, Cooper JM, Dexter D, Clark JB, Jenner P, Marsden CD (1990) Mitochondrial Complex I deficiency in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurochem 54: 823–827

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siman R, Card JP (1988) Excitatory amino acid neurotoxicity in hippocampal slice preparation. Neuroscience 26: 433–447

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Su JH, Anderson A, Cummings BJ, Cotman CW (1994) Immunohistochemical evidence for apoptosis in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuro Report 5: 2529–2533

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sulston JE, Horvitz HR (1977) Post-embryonic cell lineages of the nematode Caenorhab-ditis elegans. Dev Biol 82: 110–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takayama H, Ray J, Raymon HK, Baird A, Hogg J, Fisher LJ, Gage FH (1995) Basic fibroblast growth factor increases dopaminergic graft survival and function in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Nature Medicine 1: 53–58

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thery C, Stanley ER, Mallat M (1992) Interleukin 1 and tumor necrosis factor-a stimulate the production of colony-stimulating factor 1 by murine astrocytes. J Neurochem 59: 1183–1186

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tingsborg S, Zetterstrom M, Alheim K, Hasanvan H, Schultzberg M, Bartfai T (1996) Regionally specific induction of ICE mRNA and enzyme activity in the rat brain and adrenal gland by LPS. Brain Res 712: 156–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tompkins MM, Hill WD (1995) Apoptotic-like changes in human substantia nigra. Society for Neuroscience Abstract 21 (Part 1): 1273

    Google Scholar 

  • Tooyama I, Kawamata T, Walker D, Yamada T, Hanai K, Kimura H, Iwane M, Igarashi K, McGeer EG, McGeer PL (1993) Loss of basic fibroblast growth factor in substantia nigra neurons in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 43: 372–376

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsujimoto Y, Finger L, Yunis J, Nowell PC, Croce CM (1984) Cloning of the chromosomebreakpoint of neoplastic Đ’ cells with the t(14;18) chromosome translocation. Science 226: 1097–1099

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolvetang EJ, Johnson KL, Krauer K, Ralph SJ, Linnaine W (1994) Mitochondrial respiratory chain inhibitors induce apoptosis. FEBS Lett 339: 40–44

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wyllie AH (1980) Glucocorticoid-induced thymocyte apoptosis is associated with endogenous endonuclease activation. Nature 284: 555–556

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshiyama Y, Yamada T, Asanuma K, Asahi T (1994) Apoptosis related antigen, LeY and nick-end labeling are positive in spinal motor neurons in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Acta Neuropathol 88: 207–211

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan J, Horvitz HR (1990) The Caenorhabditis elegans genes ced-3 and ced-4 act cell autonomously to cause programmed cell death. Dev Biol 138: 33

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan J, Shaham S, Ledoux S, Ellis HM, Horvitz HR (1993) The С elegans cell death gene ced-3 encodes a protein similar to mammalian interleukin-1Ăź-converting enzyme. Cell 75: 641–652

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ziv I, Melamed E, Nardi N, Luria D, Achiron A, Offen D, Barzilai A (1994) Dopamine induces apoptosis-like cell death in cultured chick sympathetic neurons - a possible novel pathogenetic mechanism in Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci Lett 170: 136–140

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhong LT, Kane D, Bredesen D (1993) BCL-2 blocks glutamate toxicity in neural cell lines. Mol Brain Res 19: 353–355

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhong LT, Sarafian T, Kane DJ, Charles AC, Mah SP, Edwards RH, Bredesen DE (1993) bc1-s inhibits death of central neural cells induced by multiple agents. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 4533–4537

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. Dr. Y. Mizuno

    Present address: Department of Neurology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113, Japan

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113, Japan

    H. Mochizuki & H. Mori

Authors
  1. H. Mochizuki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. H. Mori
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dr. Y. Mizuno
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, University of WĂĽrzburg, Germany

    P. Riederer

  2. Neurodegenerative Disorders Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

    D. B. Calne

  3. Clinical Research, Schering AG, Berlin, Germany

    R. Horowski

  4. Department of Neurology, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan

    Y. Mizuno

  5. Department of Neurology, University of Innsbruck, Austria

    W. Poewe

  6. Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pharmacology, Technion — Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel

    M. B. H. Youdim

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1997 Springer-Verlag Wien

About this paper

Cite this paper

Mochizuki, H., Mori, H., Mizuno, Y. (1997). Apoptosis in neurodegenerative disorders. In: Riederer, P., Calne, D.B., Horowski, R., Mizuno, Y., Poewe, W., Youdim, M.B.H. (eds) Advances in Research on Neurodegeneration. Journal of Neural Transmission. Supplementa, vol 50. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-6842-4_13

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-6842-4_13

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Vienna

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-211-82898-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-7091-6842-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation