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Acanthamoeba

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Molecular Parasitology

Abstract

Acanthamoebae are ubiquitous free-living amoebae that occur abundantly in water and soil worldwide, being among the most versatile protozoan organisms. They generally do not need a host, but when they accidentally have contact to the human eye, lung or skin, they can cause severe disease. They are the causative agents of Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK), on the one hand, and of several disseminating infections in the immunocompromised host eventually leading to granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE), on the other hand. The infective and invasive form of Acanthamoeba is the trophozoite; nevertheless, the cyst plays an important role in the distribution of the amoebae as well as in the course of disease. Acanthamoebae can form cysts within the host tissue, and these cysts are resistant against treatment and also often lead to reinfections.

Altogether, around 25 different species divided into three morphological groups have been described; however, the validity of many species has been challenged by molecular analyses. Currently, the genus is divided into 20 genotypes based on 18S rDNA sequencing, but the number of genotypes is growing constantly. Genotype T4 seems to be the most abundant one in most habitats and also the most common genotype in human infections; however, a classification into virulent and non-virulent genotypes is not possible. Acanthamoebae pathogenicity depends on cell-cell contact, the cytolytic event being triggered by an intimate contact between the amoebae with the target cells, established primarily via lectin-like amoebic adherence molecules. The ability of acanthamoebae to lyse cells is mainly based on lysosomal hydrolases and phospholipases.

In 2013, a first genome has become available revealing a significant number of genes presumably acquired by lateral gene transfer and a rather complex cell communication repertoire. However, the genetics of Acanthamoeba spp. is far from being fully elucidated. Fact is that acanthamoebae have unusually broad metabolic and biosynthetic capabilities, being able to synthesise most amino acids (even multiple steps), co-factors and vitamins and nucleotides de novo. Moreover, they can digest a wide range of nutrients, they are among the few protozoa with a cellulase, and they are the only protozoans known to date with an alginate lyase. Although acanthamoebae generally divide by binary fission and there is no convincing evidence for genetic recombination, even their asexual nature has been challenged recently.

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Abbreviations

AA:

Arachidonic acid (AA)

AcAtg:

Acanthamoeba autophagy-related proteins

AIF:

Apoptosis-inducing factor

AK:

Acanthamoeba keratitis

AOX:

Alternative oxidase

aPA:

Acanthamoeba plasminogen activator

cAMP:

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate

CPE:

Cytopathic effect

CRD:

Carbohydrate recognition domains

CSCP:

Cyst-specific cysteine protease

CXCL2:

Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 2

cPLA:

Cytosolic phospholipase A

DAG:

Diacylglycerol

DH:

Dehydrogenase

ECM:

Extracellular matrix

ERMES:

ER-mitochondria encounter structure

EST:

Expressed sequence tag

ETC:

Electron transport chain

FFA:

Free fatty acid

GAE:

Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis

GMP:

Guanosine monophosphate

GPCR:

G protein-coupled receptors

HBMEC:

Human brain microvascular endothelial cells

HCE:

Human corneal epithelial cells

HNE:

4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal

ICL:

Isocitrate lyase

LBP:

Laminin-binding protein

LGT:

Lateral gene transfer

MalS:

Malate synthase

MAPK:

Mitogen-activated protein kinase

MBP:

Mannose-binding protein

MIP:

Mannose-induced protein

MMP:

Matrix metalloprotease

ORF:

Open reading frame

PAR:

Protease-activated receptor

PDH:

Pyruvate dehydrogenase

PHB:

Polyhydroxybutyrate

PI3K:

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase

PKC:

Protein kinase C-like gene

PMN:

Polymorphonuclear leukocyte

PN:

Purine nucleotide

pTyr:

Phosphotyrosine

ROS:

Reactive oxygen species

SAPLIP:

Saposin-like protein

TCA:

Tricarboxylic acid

TLR:

Toll-like receptors (TLR)

UCP:

Uncoupling protein

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Michael Duchêne for critically reading the manuscript. Moreover, we would like to thank the Acanthamoeba community for all the excellent studies that have been performed, without which we would not have been able to write this chapter.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 15, Vienna, A-1090, Austria

    Martina Köhsler & Julia Walochnik

  2. Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina Ilkovičova 6, 842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia

    Martin Mrva

Authors
  1. Martina Köhsler
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  2. Martin Mrva
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  3. Julia Walochnik
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Correspondence to Julia Walochnik .

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  1. Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

    Julia Walochnik

  2. Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna, Austria

    Michael Duchêne

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Köhsler, M., Mrva, M., Walochnik, J. (2016). Acanthamoeba . In: Walochnik, J., Duchêne, M. (eds) Molecular Parasitology. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-1416-2_10

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