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International Law, Globalization, and Transformation

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Book cover Global Constitutionalism

Part of the book series: Beiträge zum ausländischen öffentlichen Recht und Völkerrecht ((BEITRÄGE,volume 275))

Abstract

According to an increasingly strengthening idea in the international law scholarship, traditional institutions and instruments of international law are now far from meeting the needs and challenges of our day, and they need to be reformed or replaced by new ones. This is also true for national laws. Domestic legal systems suffer from various obstacles in implementing jurisdiction over entities that operate beyond national borders. On the other side, public law and international law have already been in a transformative process through new norms, new forms and new actors. The catalyst of both challenges and transformation arises as a common phenomenon: globalization. Globalization, as Sands argues, goes hand in hand with three other phenomena of our era, namely technological innovations, democratization, and privatization.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Anne-Marie Slaughter, A New World Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 8.

  2. 2.

    Alan Boyle and Christin Chinkin, The Making of International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 21.

  3. 3.

    Philippe Sands, “Turtles and Torturers: The Transformation of International Law (Pinochet and Shrimp/Turtle cases),” New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 33, no. 2 (2001): 527-559.

  4. 4.

    Paul Schiff Berman, “From International Law to Law and Globalization” (University of Connecticut School of Law Articles and Working Papers, Paper 23, 2005, http://lsr.nellco.org/uconn_wps/23), last visit 11.07.2013.

  5. 5.

    Statute of the International Court of Justice, 26 June 1945, http://www.icj-cij.org/documents/?p1=4&p2=2, last visit 14.06.2015.

  6. 6.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 487.

  7. 7.

    Ibid., 487.

  8. 8.

    Ibid., 489. As a matter of fact, transnational space is based on its own logic, independent from international law, and it appears as a third layer of “social pattern-reproduction” in addition to modern statehood and feudal structures in the evolution process of modern states. This means that the transnational realm developed hand in hand with the modern statehood, instead of a model of “zero-sum relationship.” Poul Kjaer, Constitutionalism in the Global Realm: A Sociological Approach (London: Routledge, 2014), 1-2, 32. What is meant by “transnationalization of law” here is indeed to be seen as a continuance of this relationship, not a self-evident development in international relations.

  9. 9.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 490.

  10. 10.

    David J. Bederman, Globalization and International Law (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).

  11. 11.

    However, it is of note that academic works that explain this transformation aggregately are rare, since the studies on law and globalization rather concern some contextual issues. For most remarkable ones: Ibid.; Philip Alston, “The Myopia of the Handmaidens: International Lawyers and Globalization,” European Journal of International Law 3 (1997): 435-448. Rafael Domingo, The New Global Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). Frédéric Mégret, “Globalization,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, last updated: February 2009, http://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e939?prd=EPIL, last visit 19.06.2014. Berman, “From International Law.” Shavana Musa and Eefie de Voider, “Interview with Professor Neil Walker- Global Law: Another Case of the Emperor’s Clothes?,” in Reflections on Global Law, ed. Shavana Musa and Eefje de Volder (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 3-20. Charlotte Ku, International Law, International Relations and Global Governance (London: Routledge, 2012). Andrew Halpin and Volker Roeben, ed., Theorizing the Global Legal Order (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2009). Sands, “Turtles and Torturers.”

  12. 12.

    Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye Jr., “Introduction,” in Governance in a Globalizing World, ed. Joseph S. Nye and John D. Donahue (Cambridge: Visions of Governance for the 21st Century, 2000), 3.

  13. 13.

    Ibid.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., 7.

  15. 15.

    Ibid., 2.

  16. 16.

    Ibid.

  17. 17.

    Ibid., 2.

  18. 18.

    Richard A. Falk, The Declining World Order: America's Imperial Geopolitics (New York: Routledge, 2004), 17.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., 18.

  20. 20.

    Keohane and Nye, “Introduction,” 3.

  21. 21.

    Chris Thornhill, “Rights and Constituent Power in the Global Constitution,” International Journal of Law in Context 10 (2014): 384.

  22. 22.

    Slaughter, A New World Order, 12.

  23. 23.

    Karl-Heinz Ladeur, “Towards a Legal Theory of Supranationality: The Viability of Network Concept,” European Law Journal 3, no. 1 (1997): 47-48.

  24. 24.

    Saskia Sassen, “Neither Global Nor National: Novel Assemblages of Territory, Authority and Rights,” in Laws and Societies in Global Contexts: Contemporary Approaches, ed. Eve Darian-Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 25.

  25. 25.

    The concept of “network” focused here is articulated in different forms by some scholars: Such as “Global Assemblages” (Saskia Sassen), “Self-contained Regimes” (Gunther Teubner). However, this does not mean that the interpretation of this fact by these scholars is entirely the same, and they trigger the same points. Above all, the network concept of Slaughter is somewhat confined to the transgovernmental networks that stem from the disaggregation of state. In other examples, the concept of network is employed to explain social, cultural, economic and political relations between different novel forms of relationships within a broader span. Sassen, “Neither Global Nor National,” 23-28; Andreas Fischer-Lescano and Gunther Teubner, “Regime-collisions: The Vain Search for Legal Unity in the Fragmentation of Global Law,” Michigan Journal of International Law 25, no. 4 (2004): 999-1046.

  26. 26.

    Joseph S. Nye and David Welch, Küresel Catisma ve Isbirligini Anlamak, trans. Renan Akman, (Istanbul: Is Bankasi Kültür Yayinlari, 2010), 406.

  27. 27.

    Karl-Heinz Ladeur, “Globalization and Public Governance – A Contradiction?,” in Public Governance in the Age of Globalization, ed. Karl-Heinz Ladeur (Aldershot: Ashgate 2004), 1-24.

  28. 28.

    Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, “Transgovernmental Relations and International Organizations,” World Politics: A Quarterly Journal of International Relations 27, no. 1 (1974): 39, 43.

  29. 29.

    Keohane and Nye, “Introduction,” 26.

  30. 30.

    Ibid., 26.

  31. 31.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 502.

  32. 32.

    Ladeur, “Globalization and Public Governance,” 5.

  33. 33.

    Sassen, “Neither Global Nor National,” 24.

  34. 34.

    Ibid., 24.

  35. 35.

    Slaughter, A New World Order, 39.

  36. 36.

    Ibid., 45.

  37. 37.

    Ibid., 51.

  38. 38.

    Ibid., 65 ff.; Christian Walter, “International Law in a Process of Constitutionalization,” in New Perspectives on the Divide Between National and International Law, ed. Janne Nijman and Andre Nollkaemper (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 200.

  39. 39.

    Ibid., 91.

  40. 40.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 503.

  41. 41.

    Ladeur, “Globalization and Public Governance,” 5.

  42. 42.

    Karl‐Heinz Ladeur, “The State in International Law” (Comparative Research in Law & Political Economy Research Paper No. 27, 2010, http://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1094&context=clpe), 5, last visit 21.04.2013. Fischer-Lescano and Teubner, “Regime-Collisions,” 999-1046.

  43. 43.

    Ladeur, “State in International Law,” 15.

  44. 44.

    Ibid., 16.

  45. 45.

    Slaughter, A New World Order, 50.

  46. 46.

    Ladeur, “State in International Law,” 4.

  47. 47.

    Karl-Heinz Ladeur, “The Theory of Autopoiesis as an Approach to a Better Understanding of Postmodern Law- From the Hierarchy of Norms to the Heterarchy of Changing Patterns of Legal Inter-relationships” (EUI Working Paper Law no. 99/3, 1999, http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/id/943/law99_3.pdf), 34-35, last visit 13.04.2014.

  48. 48.

    See in general, Fischer-Lescano and Teubner, “Regime-collisions,” 1005-1006.

  49. 49.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 503.

  50. 50.

    Slaughter, A New World Order, 69.

  51. 51.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 511.

  52. 52.

    Ladeur, “State in International Law,” 16.

  53. 53.

    Antje Wiener, “Constitutionalism Unbound: A Practice Approach to Normativity” (Paper presented at 'Practice, Ethics and Normativity' at the Annual Millennium Conference 'Out Of The Ivory Tower - Weaving the Theories and Practice of International Relations, London School of Economics & Political Science, London, 22-23 October 2011, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2103049 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2103049), 3, last visit 11.04.2014.

  54. 54.

    J. G. Starke, “Elements of the Sociology of International Law,” Australian Year Book of International Law 1 (1965): 121.

  55. 55.

    Andrea Hamann and Hélène Ruiz Fabri, “Transnational Networks and Constitutionalism,” International Journal of Constitutional Law 6, no. 3-4 (2008): 484.

  56. 56.

    Zygmunt Bauman, Globalization: The Human Consequences (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 2.

  57. 57.

    Ladeur, “State in International Law,” 18.

  58. 58.

    Dieter Grimm, “The Constitution in the Process of Denationalization,” Constellations 12, no. 4 (2005): 454.

  59. 59.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 527.

  60. 60.

    Hamann and Fabri, “Transnational Networks,” 483.

  61. 61.

    Friedrich Kratochwil, “Leaving Sovereignty Behind? An Inquiry into the Politics of Post-Modernity,” in Legality and Legitimacy in Global Affairs, ed. Richard Falk, Mark Juergensmeyer and Vesselin Popovski (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 127-148.

  62. 62.

    Ibid., 134, emphasis belongs to the original text.

  63. 63.

    Martin Loughlin, “Ten Tenets of Sovereignty,” in Sovereignty in Transition: Essays in European Law, ed. Neil Walker (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2006), 59.

  64. 64.

    Bardo Fassbender, “Sovereignty and Constitutionalism in International Law,” in Sovereignty in Transition: Essays in European Law, ed. Neil Walker (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2006), 116.

  65. 65.

    The Case of the S.S. Lotus, (France v. Turkey), PCIJ, Series A, No. 10 (1927), para. 18, cited by Fassbender, “Sovereignty and Constitutionalism,” 117.

  66. 66.

    The UN Charter, 26 June 1945, https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/ctc/uncharter.pdf, last visit 11.12.2014.

  67. 67.

    Fassbender, “Sovereignty and Constitutionalism,” 128.

  68. 68.

    Ibid.

  69. 69.

    Karl-Heinz Ladeur, “Ein Recht der Netzwerke für die Weltgesellschaft oder Konstitutionalisierung der Völkergemeinschaft,“ Archiv des Völkerrechts 49 (2011): 251.

  70. 70.

    Global governance is a term that is completely different from the world government. Governance is simply “the processes and institutions, both formal and informal, that guide and restrain the collective activities of a group.” Governance is not only conducted by governments and international organizations, but it also includes private firms and non-governmental organizations, in some cases without a governmental authority. Keohane and Nye, “Introduction,” 12-19.

  71. 71.

    Ladeur, “Legal Theory of Supranationality,” 44.

  72. 72.

    Hans Kelsen, “The Principle of Sovereign Equality of States as a Basis for International Organization,” Yale Law Journal 53 (1944): 207-208, cited by Bardo Fassbender, “The United Nations Charter as Constitution of the International Community,” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 36, no. 3 (1998): 582.

  73. 73.

    Kratochwil, “Leaving Sovereignty Behind?,” 127. For an opposite view, Loughlin, “Ten Tenets of Sovereignty.”

  74. 74.

    Kratochwil, “Leaving Sovereignty Behind?,” 127.

  75. 75.

    Ibid., 135.

  76. 76.

    Milena Sterio, “The Evolution of International Law,” Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 31, no. 2 (2008): 231.

  77. 77.

    Ladeur, “Globalization and Public Governance,” 11.

  78. 78.

    Linda Bosniak, “Citizenship Denationalized,” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 7 (2000): 491, cited by Russel Menyhart, “Changing Identities and Changing Law: Possibilities for a Global Legal Culture,” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 10 (2003): 173.

  79. 79.

    Kratochwil, “Leaving Sovereignty Behind?,” 135.

  80. 80.

    Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic a/k/a “Dule,” ICTY IT-94-1-AR7, 22.10.1995, para. 55, http://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/acdec/en/51002.htm, last visit 20.03.2012.

  81. 81.

    Christine E.J. Schwöbel, Global Constitutionalism in International Legal Perspective (Leiden: Nijhoff, 2011), 82.

  82. 82.

    See in general, Fischer-Lescano and Teubner, “Regime-collisions.”

  83. 83.

    Ladeur, “Ein Recht der Netzwerke,” 252.

  84. 84.

    Slaughter, A New World Order, 8.

  85. 85.

    Kratochwil, “Leaving Sovereignty Behind?,” 136.

  86. 86.

    Loughlin, “Ten Tenets of Sovereignty,” 55.

  87. 87.

    Fassbender, “Sovereignty and Constitutionalism,” 115.

  88. 88.

    Ladeur, “Globalization and Public Governance,” 11-12.

  89. 89.

    Fassbender, “Sovereignty and Constitutionalism,” 140.

  90. 90.

    Ladeur, “Globalization and Public Governance,” 1; Peer Zumbansen, “Transnational Law,” in Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, ed. Jan M. Smits (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2006), 740 ff.

  91. 91.

    Ladeur, “Globalization and Public Governance,” 5.

  92. 92.

    Slaughter, A New World Order, 31.

  93. 93.

    Ku, International Law, 21.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., 21-28.

  95. 95.

    Schwöbel, Global Constitutionalism, 97.

  96. 96.

    Falk, Declining World Order.

  97. 97.

    The Case of the SS Lotus (France v. Turkey), cited by Ku, International Law, 160.

  98. 98.

    Ku, International Law, 162.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., 162.

  100. 100.

    Sands, “Turtles and Torturers,” 536.

  101. 101.

    Falk, Declining World Order, 13.

  102. 102.

    Ibid.

  103. 103.

    Ibid.

  104. 104.

    Ibid.

  105. 105.

    Ibid., 38.

  106. 106.

    Andrew Linklater, The Transformation of Political Community: Ethical Foundations of the Post-Westphalian Era (Columbia SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1998), 8.

  107. 107.

    Ibid.

  108. 108.

    Ibid., 7.

  109. 109.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 245.

  110. 110.

    Kjaer, Constitutionalism in Global Realm, 72.

  111. 111.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 487.

  112. 112.

    Ulrich K. Preuß, “Equality of States – Its Meaning in a Constitutionalised Global Order,” Chicago Journal of International Law 9, no.1 (2008-2009): 36.

  113. 113.

    Preuß, “Equality of States,” 34.

  114. 114.

    Ibid., 36; Fassbender, “United Nations Charter.”

  115. 115.

    Preuß, “Equality of States,” 38.

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    Fassbender, “United Nations Charter.”

  118. 118.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 222.

  119. 119.

    Ibid., 238.

  120. 120.

    Paul Schiff Berman, “A Pluralist Approach to International Law,” The Yale Journal of International Law 3, no. 2 (2007): 304.

  121. 121.

    Bernhard Zangl, “Is There an Emerging International Rule of Law?,” in Transformations of the State, ed. Stephan Leibfried and Michael Zürn (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 88.

  122. 122.

    Loizidou v. Turkey, Judgment (Preliminary Objection), 15318/89 (23.03.1995), para. 75, http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-57920, last visit 01.11.2013.

  123. 123.

    Bosphorus Hava Yolları Turizm ve Ticaret Anonim Şirketi v. Ireland, Judgment (Merits), Grand Chamber, 45036/98 (30.06.2005), para. 156, http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-69564, last visit 29.10.2013.

  124. 124.

    Ed Bates, The Evolution of the European Convention on Human Rights: From Its Inception to the Creation of a Permanent Court of Human Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 153.

  125. 125.

    Al-Dulimi and Montana Management Inc. v. Switzerland, 5809/08, Concurring Opinion Of Judge Pinto De Albuquerque, Joined By Judges Hajiyev, Pejchal and Dedov (21.06.2016), para. 7 ff., http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-164515, last visit 12.03.2017.

  126. 126.

    Ibid., para. 60.

  127. 127.

    Bates, Evolution of European Convention, 153.

  128. 128.

    Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, (Belgium v. Spain), ICJ 3, 32 (05.02.1970), para. 33, http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&case=50&p3=4, last visit, 25.09.2013.

  129. 129.

    Ibid., para. 34.

  130. 130.

    Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order, ICJ Reports 1992 (14.03.1992), para. 42,

    http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?sum=460&code=lus&p1=3&p2=3&case=89&k=82&p3=5, last visit 19.09.2013.

  131. 131.

    Ahmed Ali Yusuf and Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council of the European Union and Commission of the European Communities, Judgment of the CFI, 306/01 (21.09.2005), para. 277, http://curia.europa.eu/juris/showPdf.jsf?text=&docid=59905&pageIndex=0&doclang=en&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=590169, last visit 25.09.2013. Yassin Abdullah Kadi v. Council of the European Union and Commission of the European Communities, Judgment of the CFI, 315/01 (21.09.2005), para. 226, http://curia.europa.eu/juris/showPdf.jsf?text=&docid=59906&pageIndex=0&doclang=en&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=596999, last visit 25.09.2013.

  132. 132.

    Ahmed Ali Yusuf and Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council of the European Union and Commission of the European Communities, para. 281.

  133. 133.

    Andrea Bianchi, “Human Rights and the Magic of Jus Cogens,” European Journal of International Law 19, no. 3 (2008), 491-499.

  134. 134.

    Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, para. 28.

  135. 135.

    Andreas L. Paulus, “International Legal System as a Constitution,” in Ruling the World?: Constitutionalism, International Law, and Global Governance, ed. Jeffrey L. Dunoff and Joel P. Trachtman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 86.

  136. 136.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 489.

  137. 137.

    Sterio, Evolution of International Law, 216.

  138. 138.

    Ku, International Law, 45.

  139. 139.

    Ibid., 46.

  140. 140.

    Ibid.

  141. 141.

    Ibid., 51.

  142. 142.

    Ibid.

  143. 143.

    Ibid.

  144. 144.

    Bederman, Globalization and International Law, 174.

  145. 145.

    Ku, International Law, 109.

  146. 146.

    Bederman, Globalization and International Law, 174.

  147. 147.

    Ku, International Law, 116.

  148. 148.

    Inis L. Claude, Jr., “Collective Legitimization as a Political Function of the United Nations,” International Organization 20 (1966): 367, cited by Ibid., 110.

  149. 149.

    Dag Hammarskjöld, “International Cooperation within the United Nations,” in Dag Hammarskjöld: Servant Peace, ed. Wilder Foote (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 93 cited by Ibid., 111.

  150. 150.

    Jose E. Alvarez, “The New Treaty Makers,” in International Law: Classic and Contemporary Readings, ed. Charlotte Ku and Paul F. Diehl, 3rd ed. (Boulder, Colo: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2009), 102-104.

  151. 151.

    Ibid., 106-112.

  152. 152.

    Panagiotis Delimatsis, “A Global Law Perspective of the WTO,” in Reflections on Global Law. ed. Shavana Musa and Eefje de Volder (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 156.

  153. 153.

    Ibid., 154.

  154. 154.

    Ibid., 154.

  155. 155.

    Bederman, Globalization and International Law, 174.

  156. 156.

    Tomer Broude, “International Judicial Bodies as Sources of Normativity: The WTO Dispute Settlement System in Comparative Context,” in Governance and International Legal Theory, ed. F. Dekker and Wouter G. Werner. (Leiden: Springer Science+Business Media, B.V., 2004), 238; emphasis belongs to the original text.

  157. 157.

    Jan Klabbers, International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 274.

  158. 158.

    Delimatsis, “A Global Law Perspective,” 153-155.

  159. 159.

    Ibid., 156-158.

  160. 160.

    Bederman, Globalization and International Law, 174.

  161. 161.

    Ibid., 175.

  162. 162.

    Ibid., 176.

  163. 163.

    According to general estimates, today over 30.000 NGOs are in operation. Ku, International Law, 122.

  164. 164.

    Klabbers, International Law, 89.

  165. 165.

    Ku, International Law, 123.

  166. 166.

    Ibid.,120.

  167. 167.

    Ibid., 121.

  168. 168.

    Ibid., 123-124.

  169. 169.

    Alvarez, “New Treaty Makers,” 109.

  170. 170.

    Ku, International Law, 124.

  171. 171.

    Bederman, Globalization and International Law, 175.

  172. 172.

    Ku, International Law, 99.

  173. 173.

    Ibid., 99.

  174. 174.

    Ladeur, “Ein Recht der Netzwerke,” 255; also see Christian Tomuschat, “Obligations Arising for States Without or Against Their Will,” Recueil des Cours 241, no. 4 (1993): 199.

  175. 175.

    Ku, International Law, 100.

  176. 176.

    Berman, “A Pluralist Approach,” 308-311.

  177. 177.

    Klabbers, International Law, 106.

  178. 178.

    Ibid., 108.

  179. 179.

    Ibid., 109.

  180. 180.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 252.

  181. 181.

    Louis Henkin, “A New Birth of Constitutionalism: Genetic Influences and Genetic Defects,” Cardozo Law Review 14, no. 3-2 (1992 – 1993): 542.

  182. 182.

    Klabbers, International Law, 89.

  183. 183.

    Ladeur, “Ein Recht der Netzwerke,” 248.

  184. 184.

    Thomas Buergenthal, “The Normative and Institutional Evolution of International Human Rights,” Human Rights Quarterly 19 (1997): 703.

  185. 185.

    Ibid., 705.

  186. 186.

    Ibid., 706.

  187. 187.

    Ibid., 711.

  188. 188.

    Ibid., 712.

  189. 189.

    Ibid., 713.

  190. 190.

    Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, 25.06.1993, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/Vienna.aspx, last visit 10.07.2015.

  191. 191.

    Buergenthal, “International Human Rights,” 723.

  192. 192.

    Ibid., 711.

  193. 193.

    Ibid., 712.

  194. 194.

    Ibid., 715.

  195. 195.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 229.

  196. 196.

    Hugh Thirlway, The Sources of International Law, 1st ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 175.

  197. 197.

    Ibid.

  198. 198.

    Bruno Simma and Philip Alston, “The Sources of Human Rights Law: Custom, Jus Cogens and General Principles,” Australian Yearbook of International Law 12 (1988-9): 82. For a counter argument: Thirlway, Sources of International Law, 180-181.

  199. 199.

    Klabbers, International Law, 37.

  200. 200.

    Thirlway, Sources of International Law, 35.

  201. 201.

    Slaughter, A New World Order.

  202. 202.

    Klabbers, International Law, 38.

  203. 203.

    For example, as a standard setting body, Basel Committee is one of the most notable ones. Ibid., 37.

  204. 204.

    North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v. Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany v. Netherlands), Merits, ICJ Rep 3, (1969) cited by Tullio Treves, “Customary International Law,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Law, 2006, 17, http://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1393?prd=EPIL, last visit 14.11.2014.

  205. 205.

    Ibid., 17.

  206. 206.

    Ibid., 4-6.

  207. 207.

    Boyle and Chinkin, Making of International Law 21.

  208. 208.

    Ibid., 21.

  209. 209.

    Jörg Kammerhofer, Uncertainty in International Law: A Kelsenian Perspective (London: Routledge, 2011), 60.

  210. 210.

    Ibid., 62 ff.

  211. 211.

    Martti Koskenniemmi, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument; With a New Epilogue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 437.

  212. 212.

    Kammerhofer, Uncertainty in International Law, 77.

  213. 213.

    Ibid.

  214. 214.

    Tomuschat, “Obligations Arising for States.” Further, Koh argues that interaction in transnational legal process is the most remarkable ground for states to obey international law. Harold Hongju Koh, “The 1994 Roscoe Pound Lecture: Transnational Legal Process,” Nebraska Law Review 75, no. 1 (1996): 203.

  215. 215.

    Ku, International Law, 51.

  216. 216.

    Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23.05.1969, http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/1_1_1969.pdf, last visit 11.09.2012.

  217. 217.

    Thirlway, Sources of International Law, 35.

  218. 218.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 227.

  219. 219.

    Multilateral Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 10.12.1984 (hereafter Torture Convention), https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201465/volume-1465-I-24841-English.pdf, last visit 27.11.2012.

  220. 220.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 227.

  221. 221.

    e.g. Torture Convention, Articles 5-7.

  222. 222.

    Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations, 09.12.1948, (hereafter Genocide Convention) https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%2078/volume-78-I-1021-English.pdf, last visit 29.12.2012.

  223. 223.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 229.

  224. 224.

    Ibid., 230.

  225. 225.

    See above Section 2.1.1.2. For a counter argument about “self-contained regimes”: Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties Arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law: Report of the Study Group of the International Law Commission, Finalized by Martti Koskenniemi, (Geneva: International Law Commission, Fifty-eighth session, 1 May-9 June and 3 July-11 August 2006) (hereafter ILC Report), para. 5,

    http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/LTD/G06/610/77/PDF/G0661077.pdf?OpenElement, last visit 16.07.2014.

  226. 226.

    Thirlway, Sources of International Law, 174.

  227. 227.

    Ibid., 175-184.

  228. 228.

    Klabbers, International Law, 109.

  229. 229.

    e.g. Corfu Channel Case, Thirlway, Sources of International Law, 185-189.

  230. 230.

    Ku, International Law, 151.

  231. 231.

    Ibid., 152.

  232. 232.

    Barry Kellman, “Protection of Nuclear Materials,” in Commitment and Compliance, ed. Dinah Shelton, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 487, cited by Ibid., 153.

  233. 233.

    Klabbers, International Law, 38.

  234. 234.

    Ibid., 38.

  235. 235.

    Ibid., 38.

  236. 236.

    Ibid., 40.

  237. 237.

    Anne Peters, “Fragmentation and Constitutionalization,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law, ed. Anne Orford and Florian Hoffmann (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 1012.

  238. 238.

    ILC Report.

  239. 239.

    Ibid., para. 8.

  240. 240.

    Ibid., para. 245.

  241. 241.

    Ibid., para. 10-17.

  242. 242.

    Ibid., para. 245.

  243. 243.

    Ibid., para. 246.

  244. 244.

    Ibid., para. 249.

  245. 245.

    Lars Viellechner, “Verfassung als Chiffre,” Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht 1 (2015): 248.

  246. 246.

    The official website of ICANN, https://www.icann.org/resources/pages/welcome-2012-02-25-en, last visit 18.06.2015.

  247. 247.

    Karl-Heinz Ladeur, “ICANN and the Illusion of a Community Based Internet: Comments on Jochen von Bernstorff,” in Transnational Governance and Constitutionalism, ed. Christian Joerges, Inger-Johanne Sand and Gunther Teubner (Portland: Hart Publishing, 2004), 283.

  248. 248.

    The official website of ICANN.

  249. 249.

    Luke A. Walker, “ICANN's Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy,” Berkeley Technology Law Journal 15 (2000): 303, 307.

  250. 250.

    Keohane and Nye, “Introduction,” 24.

  251. 251.

    Walker, “ICANN's Uniform Domain Name,” 300.

  252. 252.

    Ladeur, “ICANN and Illusion,” 283.

  253. 253.

    Ibid., 284.

  254. 254.

    Viellechner, “Verfassung als Chiffre,” 248.

  255. 255.

    Ku, International Law, 32.

  256. 256.

    Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, ICJ Reports (1986), http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/?sum=367&p1=3&p2=3&case=70&p3=5, last visit 29.10.2012.

  257. 257.

    The Prosecutor v. Duško Tadic, para. 117.

  258. 258.

    Ibid., para.124-145.

  259. 259.

    Fischer-Lescano and Teubner, “Regime-Collisions.” Martti Koskenniemmi,

    “The Fate of Public International Law: Between Technique and Politics,” The Modern Law Review 70, no. 1 (2007): 1-30.

  260. 260.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 530.

  261. 261.

    Ibid., 532.

  262. 262.

    Ibid.

  263. 263.

    Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, “Multilevel Trade Governance in the WTO Requires Multilevel Constitutionalism,” in Constitutionalism, Multilevel Trade, Governance and International Economic Law, ed. Christian Joerges and Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2011), 31 ff.

  264. 264.

    ILC Report, para. 10.

  265. 265.

    Ibid.

  266. 266.

    Ibid.

  267. 267.

    Ibid., para. 12.

  268. 268.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 520.

  269. 269.

    Ku, International Law, 48.

  270. 270.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 520.

  271. 271.

    Peer Zumbansen, “Carving Out Typologies and Accounting for Differences Across Systems: Towards a Methodology of Transnational Constitutionalism,” in The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Constitutional Law, ed. Michel Rosenfeld and Andras Sajo (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 82.

  272. 272.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 240.

  273. 273.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 521.

  274. 274.

    Ibid., 522.

  275. 275.

    Ibid., 523.

  276. 276.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 240.

  277. 277.

    Ibid., 240.

  278. 278.

    Karl-Heinz Ladeur, “The Role of Contracts and Networks in Public Governance: The Importance of the ‘Social Epistemology’ of Decision Making,” Indiana Journal ofGlobal Legal Studies 14, no. 2 (2007): 329-351.

  279. 279.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 242.

  280. 280.

    Ladeur, “Role of Contracts,” 331.

  281. 281.

    Ibid., 331.

  282. 282.

    Sterio, “Evolution of International Law,” 242.

  283. 283.

    Ibid., 243.

  284. 284.

    Petersmann, “Multilevel Trade Governance,” 18.

  285. 285.

    Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, “Constitutionalism andInternational Organizations,” Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business 17 (1996-1997): 398.

  286. 286.

    Schwöbel, Global Constitutionalism, 96.

  287. 287.

    Hubert Thierry, “The European Tradition in International Law: The Thought of Georges Scelle,” European Journal of International Law 1 (1990): 194.

  288. 288.

    Ibid., 205-206.

  289. 289.

    Ibid., 198-199.

  290. 290.

    Ibid., 200.

  291. 291.

    Ibid., 205.

  292. 292.

    Georges Scelle, Précis de droit des gens, Vol. I (1932), cited by Ibid., 201.

  293. 293.

    Ibid.

  294. 294.

    The Case of the SS Lotus (France v. Turkey), cited by Paulus, “International Legal System,” 73-74.

  295. 295.

    Tomuschat, “Obligations Arising for States,” 195, 236.

  296. 296.

    Ibid., 292.

  297. 297.

    Christian Tomuschat, “International Law: Ensuring the Survival of Mankind on the Eve of a New Century, General Course on Public International Law,” in Recueil des Cours 10, no. 25 (1999): 75-76, cited by Armin von Bogdandy, “Constitutionalism in International Law: Comment on a Proposal from Germany,” Harvard International Law Journal 47, no.1 (2006): 235.

  298. 298.

    Ibid., 236.

  299. 299.

    Ibid., 237.

  300. 300.

    Fassbender, “United Nations Charter,” 541.

  301. 301.

    Alfred Verdross and Bruno Simma, Universelles Völkerrecht: Theorie und Praxis, 1976, cited by Ibid., 542.

  302. 302.

    Ibid., 569.

  303. 303.

    Schwöbel, Global Constitutionalism, 90.

  304. 304.

    Koh, “1994 Roscoe Pound Lecture,” 191.

  305. 305.

    Ibid., 194.

  306. 306.

    Rutti G. Teitel, “Humanity's Law: Rule of Law for the New Global Politics,” Cornell International Law Journal 35, no. 2 (2002): 357.

  307. 307.

    For inquiries for an emerging international rule of law as a new paradigm of international law: Ibid., and also Winston P. Nagan and Garry Jacobs, “New Paradigm for Global Rule of Law,” Cadmus 1, no. 4 (2012): 130-146.

  308. 308.

    Nye and Welch, Küresel Catisma, 62.

  309. 309.

    Alec Stone-Sweet, “What is a Supranational Constitution? An Essay in International Relations Theory,” The Review of Politics 56, no. 3 (1994): 451.

  310. 310.

    Nye and Welch, Küresel Catisma, 342.

  311. 311.

    Ibid., 368.

  312. 312.

    Stone-Sweet, “Supranational Constitution,” 458.

  313. 313.

    Ibid., 469.

  314. 314.

    W. Michael Reisman, Siegfried Wiessner and Andrew R. Willard, “The New Haven School: A Brief Introduction,” Yale Journal of International Law 32 (2007): 576.

  315. 315.

    Fassbender, “United Nations Charter,” 545.

  316. 316.

    Myres S. McDougal and W. Michael Reisman, “International Law in Policy-oriented Perspective,” in The Structure and Process of International Law: Essays in Legal Philosophy, Doctrine and Theory, ed. R. St. J. Macdonald and Douglas M. Johnston (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1983), 103.

  317. 317.

    W. Michael Reisman, “The View from the New Haven School of International Law,” (Faculty Scholarship Series. Paper 867, 1992, http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/867/), last visit 09.08.2014.

  318. 318.

    Berman, “A Pluralist Approach,” 301.

  319. 319.

    Ibid., 306.

  320. 320.

    Fassbender, “United Nations Charter,” 551.

  321. 321.

    Koh, “1994 Roscoe Pound Lecture,” 191.

  322. 322.

    Boaventura de Sousa Santos, Toward a New Legal Common Sense: Law, Globalization, and Emancipation (London: Butterworths, 1995), 7.

  323. 323.

    Ibid., 8.

  324. 324.

    Falk, Declining World Order.

  325. 325.

    Ladeur, “Globalization and Public Governance,” 6.

  326. 326.

    Ibid., 6.

  327. 327.

    David Kennedy, “The Mystery of Global Governance,” in Ruling the World: Constitutionalism, International Law, and Global Governance, ed. Joel Trachtman and Jeff Dunoff (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 37.

  328. 328.

    Ku, International Law, 33.

  329. 329.

    Musa and De Voider, “Neil Walker,” 6-7.

  330. 330.

    Domingo, New Global Law, 98.

  331. 331.

    Ibid., 121.

  332. 332.

    Ibid., 122.

  333. 333.

    Ibid., 142.

  334. 334.

    Musa and De Voider, “Neil Walker,” 7.

  335. 335.

    Ibid., 8.

  336. 336.

    Delimatsis, “A Global Law Perspective,” 154.

  337. 337.

    William Twining, “Implications of ‘Globalisation’ for Law as a Discipline,” in Theorizing the Global Legal Order, ed. Andrew Halpin and Volker Roeben, (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2009), 41. Also for a similar argumentation: Sassen, “Neither Global Nor National,” 36.

  338. 338.

    Sassen, “Neither Global Nor National,” 36.

  339. 339.

    Ibid., 37.

  340. 340.

    Twining, “Implications of Globalisation,” 41.

  341. 341.

    Twining mentions a range of legal scholars who developed globally oriented approaches while drawing on classical jurisprudence at the same time, such as Tamanaha, Pogge, Singer, Glenn, Santos. Ibid., 45.

  342. 342.

    For a global socio-legal perspective: Eve Darian-Smith, Laws and Societies in Global Contexts: Contemporary Approaches (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 12.

  343. 343.

    Twining, “Implications of ‘Globalisation,” 52.

  344. 344.

    Eugen Ehrlich, Grundlegung der Soziologie des Rechts (Berlin: Duncker&Humblot, 1989).

  345. 345.

    Roger Cotterrell, The Sociology of Law: An Introduction (London: Butterworths, 1984).

  346. 346.

    Stefan Oeter, “Theorizing Global Legal Order - An Institutionalist Perspective,” in Theorizing the Global Legal Order, ed. Andrew Halpin and Volker Roeben (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2009), 81.

  347. 347.

    Koskenniemi, “Fate of Public International Law,” 19.

  348. 348.

    Antje Wiener, “Global Constitutionalism: Mapping an Emerging Field” (Paper presented at the Conference “Constitutionalism in a New Key? Cosmopolitan, Pluralist and Public Reason-Oriented,” WZB and Humboldt University, Berlin, 28-29 January 2011, http://cosmopolis.wzb.eu/content/programs/ conkey_Wiener_Mapping-Field.pdf), last visit 10.01.2014.

  349. 349.

    Richard A. Falk, Robert C. Johansen and Samuel S. Kim, “Global Constitutionalism and World Order,” in The Constitutional Foundations of World Peace, ed. Richard A. Falk, Robert C. Johansen and Samuel S. Kim (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993), 9.

  350. 350.

    Oeter, “Theorizing Global Legal Order,” 81.

  351. 351.

    Jutta Brunnee and Stephen J. Toope, “International Law and Constructivism: Elements of an Interactional Theory of International Law,” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 39 (2000-2001): 26.

  352. 352.

    Antje Wiener, “Constructivism: The Limits of Bridging Gaps,” Journal of International Relations and Development 6, no. 3 (2003): 252.

  353. 353.

    Alexander Wendt, “The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations Theory,” International Organization 41 (1987): 335, 359, cited by Brunnee and Toope, “International Law and Constructivism,” 27.

  354. 354.

    Wiener, “Constructivism,” 252.

  355. 355.

    Brunnee and Toope, “International Law and Constructivism,” 20.

  356. 356.

    Wiener, “Constructivism,” 257.

  357. 357.

    Brunnee and Toope, “International Law and Constructivism,” 30-31.

  358. 358.

    Ibid., 48.

  359. 359.

    Instead, for example, as Fuller suggests, “internal morality of law” would be employed to measure legitimacy of law, Ibid., 65-66-70.

  360. 360.

    Oeter, “Theorizing Global Legal Order,” 65.

  361. 361.

    Ibid. 81.

  362. 362.

    Delimatsis, “A Global Law Perspective,” 155.

  363. 363.

    Sally Engle Merry, “Legal Pluralism,” in The Globalization on International Law, ed. Paul Schiff Berman (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 30.

  364. 364.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 507.

  365. 365.

    Ibid., 508.

  366. 366.

    Ibid., 511.

  367. 367.

    ILC Report, para. 8.

  368. 368.

    Ibid., para. 492.

  369. 369.

    Roscoe Pound, “Law in Books and Law in Action,” American Law Review 44 (1910): 12-36.

  370. 370.

    Berman, “From International Law,” 539.

  371. 371.

    Ibid. 540.

  372. 372.

    Benedict Kingsbury and Megan Donaldson, “Global Administrative Law,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, last updated: April 2011, para. 1, http://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e948?rskey=jtGmdz&result=1&prd=EPIL, last visit 10.05.2015.

  373. 373.

    Benedict Kingsbury, Nico Krisch and Richard B. Stewart, “The Emergence of Global Administrative Law,” Law and Contemporary Problems 68, no. 3/4 (2005): 28.

  374. 374.

    Ibid.

  375. 375.

    Kingsbury and Donaldson, “Global Administrative Law,” para. 2.

  376. 376.

    Kingsbury, Krisch and Stewart, “Emergence of Global Administrative Law,” 27.

  377. 377.

    Ibid., 15. Benedict Kingsbury, “The Concept of ‘Law’ in Global Administrative Law,” The European Journal of International Law 20, no.1 (2009): 25.

  378. 378.

    Kingsbury, “The Concept of ‘Law’,” 25.

  379. 379.

    For example, WTO Dispute Settlement Body also performs some regulatory functions, Kingsbury, Krisch and Stewart, “Emergence of Global Administrative Law,” 17.

  380. 380.

    Ibid., 17.

  381. 381.

    Ibid.

  382. 382.

    Ibid., 16; Kingsbury and Donaldson, “Global Administrative Law,” para. 10.

  383. 383.

    Kingsbury, Krisch and Stewart, “Emergence of Global Administrative Law,” 23-27.

  384. 384.

    Ibid., 37.

  385. 385.

    Ibid., 37-42.

  386. 386.

    Ibid., 48.

  387. 387.

    Ibid., 61.

  388. 388.

    Marcelo Neves, Transconstitutionalism, trans. Kevin Mundy (Oxford and Portland Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2013), 56.

  389. 389.

    Viellechner, “Verfassung als Chiffre,” 236.

  390. 390.

    Koskenniemi, “Fate of Public International Law,” 20.

  391. 391.

    Viellechner, “Verfassung als Chiffre,” 237.

  392. 392.

    Ibid.

  393. 393.

    Ladeur, “Ein Recht der Netzwerke.” Nico Krisch, Beyond Constitutionalism: The Pluralist Structure of Postnational Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).

  394. 394.

    Kingsbury and Donaldson, “Global Administrative Law,” para. 3.

  395. 395.

    Anne Peters, “Compensatory Constitutionalism: The Fundamental Function and Potential of Fundamental International Norms and Structures,” Leiden Journal of International Law 19 (2006): 579-410.

  396. 396.

    Kingsbury and Donaldson, “Global Administrative Law,” para. 57. Also see, Krisch, Beyond Constitutionalism.

  397. 397.

    Schwöbel, Global Constitutionalism.

  398. 398.

    Fassbender, “Sovereignty and Constitutionalism,” 128.

  399. 399.

    Ibid., 131, emphasis belongs to the original text.

  400. 400.

    Ibid., 131-132.

  401. 401.

    Schwöbel, Global Constitutionalism, 118.

  402. 402.

    Ibid., 118.

  403. 403.

    Wiener, “Global Constitutionalism,” 11.

  404. 404.

    Peters, “Compensatory Constitutionalism,” 586.

  405. 405.

    Anne Peters, “Conclusions,” in The Constitutionalization of International Law, ed. Jan Klabbers, Anne Peters and Geir Ulfstein (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 344.

  406. 406.

    Loughlin, “Ten Tenets of Sovereignty,” 69.

  407. 407.

    Ibid.

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    Aydin Atilgan

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Atilgan, A. (2018). International Law, Globalization, and Transformation. In: Global Constitutionalism. Beiträge zum ausländischen öffentlichen Recht und Völkerrecht, vol 275. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-55647-4_2

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