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Security Council Practice on Atrocity Crime Prevention Since the End of the Cold War

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The UN Security Council Members' Responsibility to Protect

Part of the book series: Beiträge zum ausländischen öffentlichen Recht und Völkerrecht ((BEITRÄGE,volume 274))

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Abstract

Following the end of the Cold War, the prevention of atrocity crimes has become a focal point of Security Council deliberations and action. The dissolution of the bi-polar world order contributed to this development in a twofold way: on the one hand, it released the Security Council from the paralysis which had been caused by the confrontation of two of its permanent members and thereby allowed for more constructive discussions.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cf. William A. Schabas, Preventing Genocide and Mass Killing: The Challenge for the United Nations (Minority Rights Group International, 2006) online: Middlesex University Research Repository <http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/7840/1/MRGGenocideReport.pdf> at 15 (noting that both the Security Council and the General Assembly became “more conducive to constructive debate and, potentially, appropriate action” in the 1990s).

  2. 2.

    See Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 179-180.

  3. 3.

    Cf. ibid ., at 186-188 (noting that “[n]ever before had there been such concerted activity in the area of civil wars and human rights abuse” as in the decade following the end of the Cold War).

  4. 4.

    See Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 187.

  5. 5.

    See United Nations, Report of the Independent Inquiry into the actions of the United Nations during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, 15 December 1999, UN Doc. S/1999/1257 (16 December 1999), 3 at 39; see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 187 (counting 15 new peacekeeping and observer missions launched by the Security Council between March 1991 and October 1993, as compared to only 17 in the 46 years before).

  6. 6.

    See Samantha Power, “A Problem from Hell”: America and the Age of Genocide (Harper Perennial: London, 2007) at 171-234.

  7. 7.

    Ibid ., at 171-173.

  8. 8.

    Ibid ., at 187-198.

  9. 9.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 678 (1990), UN SCOR, 2963rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/678 (1990) (29 November 1990) at op. para. 2; see on the whole also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 84-86.

  10. 10.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 87.

  11. 11.

    Ibid ., at 86-87.

  12. 12.

    See Samantha Power, “A Problem from Hell”: America and the Age of Genocide (Harper Perennial: London, 2007) at 237.

  13. 13.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 87.

  14. 14.

    Ibid .

  15. 15.

    Cf. ibid ., at 87-88.

  16. 16.

    Ibid ., at 87.

  17. 17.

    See UN Security Council, 2982nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/PV.2982 (5 April 1991) at 52.

  18. 18.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 688 (1991), UN SCOR, 2982nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/688 (1991) (5 April 1991) at op. paras. 1-3.

  19. 19.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 88.

  20. 20.

    Ibid .

  21. 21.

    Ibid .

  22. 22.

    Ibid .

  23. 23.

    Ibid .

  24. 24.

    Ibid .

  25. 25.

    Somalia is meanwhile a prime example of state failure, see only Jan Peter Schmidt, “Somalia, Conflict”, in Rüdiger Wolfrum, ed., The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) at para. 2; Daniel Thürer, “Failing States”, in Rüdiger Wolfrum, ed., The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) at para. 1.

  26. 26.

    See only International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 94. The International Crisis Group notes that Somalia had been a failed state already before the Siad Barre regime collapsed, see International Crisis Group, Somalia: An Opportunity that Should Not Be Missed, Africa Briefing N°87, Nairobi/Brussels, 22 February 2012, online at: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/horn-of-africa/somalia/b87-somalia-an-opportunity-that-should-not-be-missed.pdf> at 2.

  27. 27.

    See International Crisis Group, Somalia: An Opportunity that Should Not Be Missed, Africa Briefing N°87, Nairobi/Brussels, 22 February 2012, online at: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/horn-of-africa/somalia/b87-somalia-an-opportunity-that-should-not-be-missed.pdf> at 2.

  28. 28.

    See United Nations, Report by the independent expert, Mr. Fanuel Jarirentundu Kozonguizi, on the conditions in Somalia, prepared in accordance with paragraph 6 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/86, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1994/77 (15 December 1993) at para. 6.

  29. 29.

    Cf. United Nations, Situation of human rights in Somalia: Report of the Special Rapporteur, Ms. Mona Rishmawi, submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1998/59, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1999/103 (18 February 1999) at para. 9; International Crisis Group, Somalia: An Opportunity that Should Not Be Missed, Africa Briefing N°87, Nairobi/Brussels, 22 February 2012, online at: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/horn-of-africa/somalia/b87-somalia-an-opportunity-that-should-not-be-missed.pdf> at 2.

  30. 30.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 94.

  31. 31.

    Cf. e.g. United Nations, Situation of human rights in Somalia: Report of the Special Rapporteur, Ms. Mona Rishmawi, submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1998/59, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1999/103 (18 February 1999) at para. 9.

  32. 32.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 733 (1992), UN SCOR, 3039th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/733 (1992) (23 January 1992) at op. paras. 2-3.

  33. 33.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 5; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 94.

  34. 34.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 751 (1992), UN SCOR, 3069th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/751 (1992) (24 April 1992) at op. para. 11.

  35. 35.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2093 (2013), UN SCOR, 6929th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2093 (2013) (6 March 2013) at op. para. 33.

  36. 36.

    The operative part of the “Agreement on the Implementation of a Cease-fire” between Interim President Mohamed and General Aidid is reprinted in UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, The Situation in Somalia: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/23693 (11 March 1992) at para. 39.

  37. 37.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 751 (1992), UN SCOR, 3069th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/751 (1992) (24 April 1992) at op. paras. 2-3 in conjunction with UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, The Situation in Somalia: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/23829 (21 April 1992) at paras. 24-26.

  38. 38.

    UN Security Council, Resolution 751 (1992), UN SCOR, 3069th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/751 (1992) (24 April 1992) at op. para. 4 in conjunction with UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, The Situation in Somalia: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/23829 (21 April 1992) at paras. 27-29.

  39. 39.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 751 (1992), UN SCOR, 3069th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/751 (1992) (24 April 1992) at op. para. 5 (requesting the Secretary-General to continue consultations with the parties in Mogadishu on this matter); UN Security Council, Resolution 767 (1992), UN SCOR, 3101st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/767 (24 July 1992) at op. para. 4; UN Security Council, Resolution 775 (1992), UN SCOR, 3110th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/775 (28 August 1992) at op. para. 5 (calling for the cooperation of all parties, movements and factions in Somalia with a view to the urgent deployment of the security force).

  40. 40.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 94.

  41. 41.

    See United Nations, Emergency assistance for humanitarian relief and the economic and social rehabilitation of Somalia: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/47/553 (22 October 1992) at para. 3 (noting further that a total of 4.5 million people were threatened by severe malnutrition and related disease).

  42. 42.

    See United Nations, Letter dated 29 November 1992 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/24686 (30 November 1992) at 4-6; UN Security Council, Resolution 794 (1992), UN SCOR, 3145th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/794 (1992) (3 December 1992) at op. paras. 7-8.

  43. 43.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 794 (1992), UN SCOR, 3145th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/794 (1992) (3 December 1992) at op. para. 10.

  44. 44.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 96.

  45. 45.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 814 (1993), UN SCOR, 3188th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/814 (1993) (26 March 1993) at preambular para. 4 and op. para. 14.

  46. 46.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 814 (1993), UN SCOR, 3188th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/814 (1993) (26 March 1993) at op. paras. 10, 12, 14 and at op. para. 5 in conjunction with United Nations, Further report of the Secretary-General submitted in pursuance of paragraphs 18 and 19 of resolution 794 (1992), UN Doc. S/25354 (3 March 1993) at para. 57 (a).

  47. 47.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 814 (1993), UN SCOR, 3188th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/814 (1993) (26 March 1993) at op. paras. 5-6, 13 in conjunction with United Nations, Further report of the Secretary-General submitted in pursuance of paragraphs 18 and 19 of resolution 794 (1992), UN Doc. S/25354 (3 March 1993) at paras. 57, 63.

  48. 48.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 814 (1993), UN SCOR, 3188th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/814 (1993) (26 March 1993) at op. para. 13.

  49. 49.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 96.

  50. 50.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 837 (1993), UN SCOR, 3229th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/837 (1993) (6 June 1993) at op. para. 5; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 96.

  51. 51.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 96.

  52. 52.

    Ibid .

  53. 53.

    Ibid ., at 97.

  54. 54.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 897 (1994), UN SCOR, 3334th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/897 (4 February 1994) at op. paras. 2-3.

  55. 55.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 954 (1994), UN SCOR, 3447th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/954 (1994) (4 November 1994) at op. paras. 1, 5.

  56. 56.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 97.

  57. 57.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 16.

  58. 58.

    Ibid ., at para. 10.

  59. 59.

    Ibid ., at para. 11.

  60. 60.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 713 (1991), UN SCOR, 3009th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/713 (25 September 1991) at op. para. 6; see also UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 12.

  61. 61.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 11.

  62. 62.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 743 (1992), UN SCOR, 3055th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/743 (21 February 1992) at op. para. 2.

  63. 63.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 14.

  64. 64.

    Cf. ibid ., at para. 15; International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 92.

  65. 65.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 17-18.

  66. 66.

    Ibid ., at paras. 6, 15.

  67. 67.

    Ibid ., at paras. 16-19.

  68. 68.

    On the term “ethnic cleansing” in the context of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, cf. ibid ., at paras. 19, 35, 495; International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 92.

  69. 69.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 6.

  70. 70.

    Ibid ., at paras. 33-36.

  71. 71.

    Ibid ., at paras. 37-38.

  72. 72.

    Ibid ., at para. 37.

  73. 73.

    Ibid ., at para. 450.

  74. 74.

    Ibid ., at para. 93.

  75. 75.

    Ibid ., at para. 490.

  76. 76.

    Ibid ., at para. 29.

  77. 77.

    Ibid ., at paras. 29-32.

  78. 78.

    Ibid ., at para. 153.

  79. 79.

    Ibid ., at para. 154.

  80. 80.

    Ibid ., at para. 41.

  81. 81.

    Ibid ., at paras. 15, 18.

  82. 82.

    Ibid ., at para. 17.

  83. 83.

    Ibid ., at paras. 99, 101.

  84. 84.

    Ibid ., at para. 99.

  85. 85.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 757 (1992), UN SCOR, 3082nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/757 (30 May 1992), at op. paras. 4-8; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 92.

  86. 86.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 787 (1992), UN SCOR, 3137th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/757 (16 November 1992) at op. para. 9 (banning the transshipment of certain goods through the FRY to ensure that they were not diverted in violation of Resolution 757); UN Security Council, Resolution 820 (1993), UN SCOR, 3200th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/820 (17 April 1993); see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 92.

  87. 87.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 14 (noting that, according to Resolution 743 (1992), military observers were to patrol certain areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina once demilitarization of the UN Protected Areas in Croatia had been completed, but this precondition was never met).

  88. 88.

    Cf. UN Security Council, Resolution 758 (1992), UN SCOR, 3083rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/758 (8 June 1992) at preambular para. 3; UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 27.

  89. 89.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 758 (1992), UN SCOR, 3083rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/758 (8 June 1992) at op. paras. 2-4 in conjunction with UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to Security Council Resolution 757 (1992), UN Doc. S/24075 (6 June 1992) at paras. 5-6.

  90. 90.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 776 (1992), UN SCOR, 3114th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/776 (14 September 1992) at op. para. 2 in conjunction with UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Report of the Secretary-General on the Situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, UN Doc. S/24540 (10 September 1992).

  91. 91.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 781 (1992), UN SCOR, 3122nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/781 (9 October 1992) at op. paras. 1-3.

  92. 92.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 827 (1993), UN SCOR, 3217th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/827 (25 May 1993) at op. para. 2.

  93. 93.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 771 (1992), UN SCOR, 3106th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/771 (13 August 1992) at op. para. 5.

  94. 94.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 780 (1992), UN SCOR, 3119th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/780 (6 October 1992) at op. paras. 1-2.

  95. 95.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 808 (1993), UN SCOR, 3175th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/808 (22 February 1993) at preambular para. 5 and op. paras. 1-2.

  96. 96.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 827 (1993), UN SCOR, 3217th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/827 (25 May 1993) at op. para. 2.

  97. 97.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 54.

  98. 98.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 819 (1993), UN SCOR, 3199th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/819 (1993) (16 April 1993) at op. paras. 1-2.

  99. 99.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 4.

  100. 100.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 57-58.

  101. 101.

    Ibid ., at paras. 55, 59, 60.

  102. 102.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 824 (1993), UN SCOR, 3208th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/824 (1993) (6 May 1993) at preambular paras. 3, 7 and at op. para. 3.

  103. 103.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 4.

  104. 104.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 6.

  105. 105.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 68.

  106. 106.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 824 (1993), UN SCOR, 3208th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/824 (1993) (6 May 1993) at op. para. 6.

  107. 107.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 65.

  108. 108.

    Ibid ., at paras. 70-77.

  109. 109.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 836 (1993), UN SCOR, 3228th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/836 (1993) (4 June 1993) at op. para. 4.

  110. 110.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 5.

  111. 111.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 9.

  112. 112.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 10.

  113. 113.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 77, 79.

  114. 114.

    Ibid ., at para. 93.

  115. 115.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to Security Council Resolution 836 (1993), UN Doc. S/25939 (14 June 1993) at para. 5.

  116. 116.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 844 (1993), UN SCOR, 3241st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/844 (1993) (18 June 1993) at op. para. 2 in conjunction with UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to Security Council Resolution 836 (1993), UN Doc. S/25939 (14 June 1993) at para. 6.

  117. 117.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 103-104 (noting that the government of Sweden denied a redeployment of elements of the Nordic battalion to replace the Canadian forces in Srebrenica when the scheduled time for their rotation out of the enclave had been reached, which led to the Canadians staying in Srebrenica for several more months until elements of a Dutch battalion were deployed).

  118. 118.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, The Situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Report of the Secretary-General submitted pursuant to paragraph 29 of General Assembly resolution 48/88, UN Doc. A/48/847 (7 January 1994) at para. 9.

  119. 119.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to Security Council Resolution 959 (1994), UN Doc. S/1994/1389 (1 December 1994) at para. 54.

  120. 120.

    See on the “Mount Igman crisis” UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 106-113.

  121. 121.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 119-122.

  122. 122.

    Ibid ., at paras. 122, 166.

  123. 123.

    Ibid ., at paras. 131-145, 148.

  124. 124.

    Ibid ., at paras. 122, 166.

  125. 125.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to Security Council Resolution 959 (1994), UN Doc. S/1994/1389 (1 December 1994) at para. 19; UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 167.

  126. 126.

    For a detailed narrative of the fall of Srebrenica, see UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 239-317.

  127. 127.

    See International Court of Justice, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, [2007] I.C.J. Rep. 43, online: International Court of Justice <http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/91/13685.pdf> at paras. 278-297; International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstić, IT-98-33-T, Judgment (2 August 2001), online: International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia <http://www.icty.org/x/cases/krstic/tjug/en/krs-tj010802e.pdf> at paras. 539-599; International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstić, IT-98-33-A, Judgment (19 April 2004), online: International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia <http://www.icty.org/x/cases/krstic/acjug/en/krs-aj040419e.pdf> at paras. 5-38; International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v. Vidoje Blagojević and Dragan Jokić, IT-02-60-T, Judgment (17 January 2005), online: International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia <http://www.icty.org/x/cases/blagojevic_jokic/tjug/en/bla-050117e.pdf> at paras. 639-677. On the events following the fall of Srebrenica see also the detailed narrative by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 318-392 (the figures concerning the casualties have risen after the publication of the report, as an increasing number of the unaccounted missing have been identified in mass graves).

  128. 128.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 394-397.

  129. 129.

    Ibid ., at paras. 398-402, 415-429.

  130. 130.

    Ibid ., at paras. 430-431.

  131. 131.

    Ibid ., at paras. 438-459.

  132. 132.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 688 (1991), UN SCOR, 2982nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/688 (1991) (5 April 1991) at preambular paras. 3-4.

  133. 133.

    Ibid ., at op. paras. 2, 4.

  134. 134.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at paras. 41-42.

  135. 135.

    Ibid ., at para. 42.

  136. 136.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 688 (1991), UN SCOR, 2982nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/688 (1991) (5 April 1991) at op. para. 1.

  137. 137.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 733 (1992), UN SCOR, 3039th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/733 (1992) (23 January 1992) at preambular para. 4.

  138. 138.

    Ibid ., at preambular para. 3.

  139. 139.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 746 (1992), UN SCOR, 3060th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/746 (1992) (17 March 1992) at preambular para. 6; UN Security Council, Resolution 751 (1992), UN SCOR, 3069th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/751 (1992) (24 April 1992) at preambular para. 6; UN Security Council, Resolution 767 (1992), UN SCOR, 3101st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/767 (24 July 1992) at preambular para. 7; UN Security Council, Resolution 775 (1992), UN SCOR, 3110th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/775 (28 August 1992) at preambular para. 6.

  140. 140.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 794 (1992), UN SCOR, 3145th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/794 (1992) (3 December 1992) at preambular para. 3.

  141. 141.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the work of the Organization, (1993) 47 Yearbook of the United Nations 3 at para. 431; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 96.

  142. 142.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 688 (1991), UN SCOR, 2982nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/688 (1991) (5 April 1991) at preambular para. 1.

  143. 143.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 733 (1992), UN SCOR, 3039th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/733 (1992) (23 January 1992) at preambular para. 5.

  144. 144.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 713 (1991), UN SCOR, 3009th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/713 (25 September 1991) at preambular para. 6.

  145. 145.

    See Giorgio Gaja, “The Role of the United Nations in Preventing and Suppressing Genocide” in Paola Gaeta, ed., The UN Genocide Convention – A Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009) 397 at 402-403.

  146. 146.

    See William A. Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crime of crimes, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) at 526.

  147. 147.

    This point has already been made by Giorgio Gaja, “The Role of the United Nations in Preventing and Suppressing Genocide” in Paola Gaeta, ed., The UN Genocide Convention – A Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009) 397 at 403.

  148. 148.

    See Germany, Statement in the Security Council following the vote on resolution 688 (1991), 2982nd Mtg., 5 April 1991, UN Doc. S/PV.2982, 71 at 71.

  149. 149.

    Ibid .

  150. 150.

    Cf. William A. Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crime of crimes, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) at 526.

  151. 151.

    Cf. ibid ., at 526, n. 24.

  152. 152.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 733 (1992), UN SCOR, 3039th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/733 (1992) (23 January 1992) at op. para. 8

  153. 153.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 794 (1992), UN SCOR, 3145th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/794 (1992) (3 December 1992) at op. paras. 4-5.

  154. 154.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 886 (1993), UN SCOR, 3317th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/886 (18 November 1993) at op. para. 11; UN Security Council, Resolution 897 (1994), UN SCOR, 3334th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/897 (4 February 1994) at op. para. 11; UN Security Council, Resolution 923 (1994), UN SCOR, 3385th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/923 (1994) (31 May 1994) at op. para. 6.

  155. 155.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 764 (1992), UN SCOR, 3093rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/764 (13 July 1992) at preambular para. 11.

  156. 156.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 10.

  157. 157.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 771 (1992), UN SCOR, 3106th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/771 (13 August 1992) at op. para. 1.

  158. 158.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 780 (1992), UN SCOR, 3119th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/780 (6 October 1992) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 808 (1993), UN SCOR, 3175th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/808 (22 February 1993) at preambular para. 2.

  159. 159.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 771 (1992), UN SCOR, 3106th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/771 (13 August 1992) at op. para. 2.

  160. 160.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 771 (1992), UN SCOR, 3106th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/771 (13 August 1992) at op. para. 3; see also UN Security Council, Resolution 780 (1992), UN SCOR, 3119th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/780 (6 October 1992) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 808 (1993), UN SCOR, 3175th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/808 (22 February 1993) at preambular para. 3.

  161. 161.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 808 (1993), UN SCOR, 3175th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/808 (22 February 1993) at preambular para. 8 and at op. para. 1.

  162. 162.

    Ibid ., at preambular paras. 6-9; UN Security Council, Resolution 827 (1993), UN SCOR, 3217th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/827 (25 May 1993) at preambular paras. 5-7.

  163. 163.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 97.

  164. 164.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 190.

  165. 165.

    See Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3418th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/1994/46 (25 August 1994) at para. 8.

  166. 166.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 946 (1994), UN SCOR, 3432nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/946 (1994) (30 September 1994) at preambular para. 6.

  167. 167.

    See Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3513rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/1995/15 (6 April 1995) at para. 2.

  168. 168.

    See UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999) at para. 43.

  169. 169.

    Ibid .

  170. 170.

    Ibid .

  171. 171.

    On the changing interpretation of Resolution 836 (1993) namely by the UN Secretariat, see ibid ., at para. 452.

  172. 172.

    Report of the Independent Inquiry into the actions of the United Nations during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, 15 December 1999, UN Doc. S/1999/1257 (16 December 1999) 3.

  173. 173.

    UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica, UN Doc. A/54/549 (15 November 1999).

  174. 174.

    Cf. e.g. United Nations, Situation of human rights in Somalia: Report of the Special Rapporteur, Ms. Mona Rishmawi, submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1998/59, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1999/103 (18 February 1999) at para. 9.

  175. 175.

    Cf. United Nations, Report on the situation of human rights in Somalia, prepared by the Independent Expert of the Commission on Human Rights, Ms. Mona Rishmawi, pursuant to Commission resolution 1996/57 of 19 April 1996, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1997/88 (3 March 1997) at para. 18; United Nations, Situation of human rights in Somalia Report of the Special Rapporteur, Ms. Mona Rishmawi, submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1997/47, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1998/96 (16 January 1998) at paras. 15-16; United Nations, Situation of human rights in Somalia Report of the Special Rapporteur, Ms. Mona Rishmawi, submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1999/75, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2000/110 (26 January 2000) at paras. 10-21, 32.

  176. 176.

    Cf. United Nations, Report by the independent expert, Mr. Fanuel Jarirentundu Kozonguizi, on the conditions in Somalia, prepared in accordance with paragraph 6 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/86, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1994/77 (15 December 1993) at para. 9.

  177. 177.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Report of the Secretary-General on the Situation in Somalia submitted in pursuance of Paragraph 13 of Security Council Resolution 954 (1994), UN Doc. S/1995/231 (28 March 1995) at para. 59.

  178. 178.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Letter Dated 18 April 1995 from the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/1995/322 (21 April 1995).

  179. 179.

    See United Nations, The situation of human rights in Somalia: Note by the secretariat, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2001/105 (13 March 2001) at paras. 5-8.

  180. 180.

    See Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3513rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/1995/15 (6 April 1995).

  181. 181.

    See United Nations, Initial report on the human rights situation in Burundi submitted by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, in accordance with Commission resolution 1995/90, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1996/16 (14 November 1995) at para. 19; cf. also in more detail United Nations, Final Report of the International Commission of Inquiry Concerning the Assassination of the President of Burundi on 21 October 1993 and the Massacres that Followed, UN Doc. S/1996/682 (22 August 1996) at paras. 82-91.

  182. 182.

    See United Nations, Final Report of the International Commission of Inquiry Concerning the Assassination of the President of Burundi on 21 October 1993 and the Massacres that Followed, UN Doc. S/1996/682 (22 August 1996) at para. 82.

  183. 183.

    Ibid ., at para. 85.

  184. 184.

    Ibid .; cf. also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 215 (assuming that about 150,000 Hutus were killed).

  185. 185.

    See United Nations, Final Report of the International Commission of Inquiry Concerning the Assassination of the President of Burundi on 21 October 1993 and the Massacres that Followed, UN Doc. S/1996/682 (22 August 1996) at para. 87.

  186. 186.

    Ibid ., at paras. 87, 89-91.

  187. 187.

    Ibid ., at paras. 92-93.

  188. 188.

    Ibid ., at paras. 94, 105-213.

  189. 189.

    Ibid ., at paras. 97-99.

  190. 190.

    Ibid ., at paras. 99-100.

  191. 191.

    Ibid ., at paras. 100, 104.

  192. 192.

    See United Nations, Second report on the human rights situation in Burundi submitted by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, in accordance with Commission resolution 1996/1: Addendum, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1997/12/Add.1 (7 March 1997) at para. 3.

  193. 193.

    See already ibid ., at paras. 13-51.

  194. 194.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict in Burundi, UN Doc. S/2006/851 (27 October 2006) at para 2; cf. also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 216 (citing Médecins Sans Frontières for the finding that the civil war claimed about 300,000 lives).

  195. 195.

    See also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 216 (citing Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch).

  196. 196.

    See William A. Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crime of crimes, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) at 572.

  197. 197.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1012 (1995), UN SCOR, 3571st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1012 (1995) (28 August 1995) at op. para. 1.

  198. 198.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1040 (1996), UN SCOR, 3623rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1040 (1996) (29 January 1996) at preambular para. 3 and op. para. 4; UN Security Council, Resolution 1049 (1996), UN SCOR, 3639th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1049 (1996) (5 March 1996) at op. para. 5.

  199. 199.

    See Security Council, Resolution 1040 (1996), UN SCOR, 3623rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1040 (1996) (29 January 1996) at op. paras. 5-8; UN Security Council, Resolution 1049 (1996), UN SCOR, 3639th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1049 (1996) (5 March 1996) at op. para. 14.

  200. 200.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1049 (1996), UN SCOR, 3639th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1049 (1996) (5 March 1996) at op. para. 13; UN Security Council, Resolution 1072 (1996), UN SCOR, 3695th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1072 (1996) (30 August 1996) (1996) at op. para. 12.

  201. 201.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1072 (1996), UN SCOR, 3695th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1072 (1996) (30 August 1996) at op. para. 12.

  202. 202.

    Ibid ., at op. paras. 6, 11.

  203. 203.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Burundi, UN Doc. S/1996/660 (15 August 1996) at para. 49.

  204. 204.

    See for these figures e.g. International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 98.

  205. 205.

    See United Nations, Final Report of the International Commission of Inquiry Concerning the Assassination of the President of Burundi on 21 October 1993 and the Massacres that Followed, UN Doc. S/1996/682 (22 August 1996) at 82.

  206. 206.

    Ibid .

  207. 207.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 97.

  208. 208.

    See United Nations, Final Report of the International Commission of Inquiry Concerning the Assassination of the President of Burundi on 21 October 1993 and the Massacres that Followed, UN Doc. S/1996/682 (22 August 1996) at 88.

  209. 209.

    Ibid .

  210. 210.

    See United Nations, Extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions: Report by Mr. B.W. Ndiaye, Special Rapporteur, on his mission to Rwanda from 8 to 17 April 1993. Addendum, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1994/7/Add.1 (11 August 1993) at paras. 25-31, 79.

  211. 211.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 846 (1993), UN SCOR, 3244th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/846 (22 June 1993) at paras. 2-3; see also Detlev Wolter, A United Nations for the 21st Century: From Reaction to Prevention: Towards an Effective and Efficient International Regime for Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2007) at 187.

  212. 212.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the Independent Inquiry into the actions of the United Nations during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, 15 December 1999, UN Doc. S/1999/1257 (16 December 1999) 3 at 9-15.

  213. 213.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 872 (1993), UN SCOR, 3288th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/872 (5 October 1993), op. paras. 2(a) and (b), 3.

  214. 214.

    Cf. Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 202.

  215. 215.

    See United Nations, Report of the Independent Inquiry into the actions of the United Nations during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, 15 December 1999, UN Doc. S/1999/1257 (16 December 1999) 3 at 10-12.

  216. 216.

    See on the events of 6 April 1994 e.g. International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 97; Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 202.

  217. 217.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 97.

  218. 218.

    Ibid ., at 97-98; see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 202.

  219. 219.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 97; cf. also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 202.

  220. 220.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 97.

  221. 221.

    Ibid ., at 98.

  222. 222.

    Ibid ., at 97-98.

  223. 223.

    Ibid ., at 98.

  224. 224.

    Ibid .

  225. 225.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Special Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda, UN Doc. S/1994/470 (20 April 1994); see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 98.

  226. 226.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 912 (1994), UN SCOR, 3368th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/912 (21 April 1994), at op. para. 8; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 98.

  227. 227.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Letter Dated 29 April 1994 from the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/1994/518 (29 April 1994); cf. also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 98.

  228. 228.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 98.

  229. 229.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Report of the Secretary-General on the Situation in Rwanda, UN Doc. S/1994/565 (13 May 1994) at paras. 11-17.

  230. 230.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 98.

  231. 231.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 918 (1994), UN SCOR, 3377th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/918 (1994) (17 May 1994) at paras. 3, 13.

  232. 232.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 100.

  233. 233.

    See UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Letter Dated 19 June 1994 from the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/1994/728 (20 June 1994); see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 100.

  234. 234.

    See France, Letter dated 20 June 1994 from the Permanent Representative of France to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/1994/734 (21 June 1994); see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 100.

  235. 235.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 929 (1994), UN SCOR, 3392nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/929 (1994) (22 June 1994) at paras. 2-3; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 100.

  236. 236.

    See Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 203.

  237. 237.

    See on the whole International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 100; Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 204.

  238. 238.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 100-101.

  239. 239.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 955 (1994), UN SCOR, 3453rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/955 (1994) (8 November 1994) at para. 1; see also the Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda, UN Security Council Resolution 955 (1994), UN SCOR, 3453rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/955 (1994) (8 November 1994), Annex Articles 2-4 (establishing jurisdiction of the tribunal over genocide, crimes against humanity and violations of Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions as well as of Additional Protocol II).

  240. 240.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 109.

  241. 241.

    Ibid ., at 109-110.

  242. 242.

    Cf. ibid ., at 110.

  243. 243.

    Cf. ibid ., at 110-112.

  244. 244.

    Ibid ., at 110 (noting, however, that US President George H.W. Bush had warned President Milošević already in December 1992 that the US would be prepared to intervene militarily in the event that Serbian action would cause conflict in Kosovo).

  245. 245.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1160 (1998), UN SCOR, 3868th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1160 (31 March 1998) at preambular para. 3; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 110.

  246. 246.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1160 (1998), UN SCOR, 3868th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1160 (31 March 1998) at op. paras. 5, 8; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 109.

  247. 247.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 110.

  248. 248.

    Cf. UN Security Council, Resolution 1199 (1998), UN SCOR, 3930th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1199 (23 September 1998), at preambular para. 3.

  249. 249.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1199 (1998), UN SCOR, 3930th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1199 (23 September 1998) at op. paras. 1, 4; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 109.

  250. 250.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1199 (1998), UN SCOR, 3930th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1199 (23 September 1998) at op. para. 16; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 110.

  251. 251.

    Cf. Michael Evans & Tom Walker, “NATO Bombers on Alert for Order to Hit Serbs”, The Times (12 October 1998), quoted in: International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 110.

  252. 252.

    Cf. International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 110.

  253. 253.

    Ibid .

  254. 254.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1203 (1998), UN SCOR, 3937th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1203 (24 October 1998) at preambular para. 3; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 111-113.

  255. 255.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1203 (1998), UN SCOR, 3937th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1203 (24 October 1998) at op. paras. 3-4; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 112.

  256. 256.

    Cf. International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 112 and n. 111.

  257. 257.

    Ibid ., at 113.

  258. 258.

    Ibid ., at 112.

  259. 259.

    Ibid ., at 109; cf. also Rambouillet Accords: Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Government in Kosovo, UN Doc. S/1999/648, Annex, Chapter 7, Article I(1)(a) and Appendix B at para. 8, Chapter 8 Article I(3).

  260. 260.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 112-113.

  261. 261.

    Ibid ., at 113.

  262. 262.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1244 (1999), UN SCOR, 4011th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1244 (1999) (10 June 1999) at paras. 5-11.

  263. 263.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 112.

  264. 264.

    Ibid ., at 113.

  265. 265.

    See United Nations, Extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions: Report by Mr. B.W. Ndiaye, Special Rapporteur, on his mission to Rwanda from 8 to 17 April 1993. Addendum, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1994/7/Add.1 (11 August 1993) at paras. 78-79.

  266. 266.

    See also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 98 and 100.

  267. 267.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 925 (1994), UN SCOR, 3388th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/925 (1994) (8 June 1994) at preambular para. 6; cf. also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 203; International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 100.

  268. 268.

    See Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 203.

  269. 269.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 935 (1994), UN SCOR, 3400th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/935 (1994) (1 July 1994) at preambular para. 7, op. para. 1.

  270. 270.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 2.

  271. 271.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3414th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/1994/2 (10 August 1994) at para. 5 (encouraging the government of Rwanda to cooperate with the United Nations in bringing to justice those responsible for “the atrocities committed in Rwanda, in particular the crime of genocide”); UN Security Council, Resolution 955 (1994), UN SCOR, 3453rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/955 (1994) (8 November 1994) (establishing the “International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Rwanda and Rwandan citizens responsible for genocide and other such violations committed in the territory of neighbouring States, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994"); UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, 3472nd Mtg., 30 November 1994, UN Doc. S/PRST/1994/75 (30 November 1994) at para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 978 (1995), UN SCOR, 3504th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/978 (1995) (27 February 1995) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, 3569th Mtg., 23 August 1995, UN Doc. S/PRST/1995/41 (23 August 1995) at para. 3 (plainly referring to “the genocide which took place in Rwanda”).

  272. 272.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the Independent Inquiry into the actions of the United Nations during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, 15 December 1999, UN Doc. S/1999/1257 (16 December 1999) 3 at 38.

  273. 273.

    Cf. William A. Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crime of crimes, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) at 529 (with references to the then UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, a discussion paper prepared within the office of the US Secretary of Defense and a press briefing by US State Department spokeswoman Christine Shelley).

  274. 274.

    Cf. the recollection by the then US Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, John Shattuck, Statement at the conference on “Reforming the United Nations: The use of force to safeguard international security and human rights”, Northwestern University School of Law, Chicago, U.S., 25 January 2005, (2005) 4:1 Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights Law 107 at 111 (remembering the edict which had gone out from the lawyers in the state department not to use the word “genocide” to describe the situation in Rwanda, due to the implications that this might have with a view to the duty to prevent and punish genocide under the Genocide Convention). Cf. also Philip Gourevitch, We wish to inform you that tomorrow we will be killed with our families: Stories from Rwanda (New York: Picador, 1998) at 152-153 (quoting from the press briefing held by US State Department spokesperson Christine Shelley on 10 June 1994, during which she rejected a denomination of the ongoing atrocities in Rwanda as “genocide” and defended the administration’s practice to use the formulation that “acts of genocide may have occurred” instead by pointing out that “there are obligations which arise in connection with the use of the term [‘genocide’]”); Fernando R. Téson, Humanitarian intervention: an inquiry into law and morality, 3rd ed. (Ardsley, NY: Transnational, 2005) at 319-320 (suggesting that “[t]he United States resisted using the term “genocide” to refer to the slaughter in Rwanda, as such a label would have made U.S. inaction unjustifiable”); International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 100. See on the “humiliating contortions” through which the Clinton administration had gone “to avoid the ‘G-word’ out of fear of being required to do something about genocide in Rwanda”) also David Luban, “Calling Genocide by Its Rightful Name: Lemkin’s Word, Darfur, and the UN Report” (2006-2007) 7 Chi. J. Int’l L. 303 at 304-305.

  275. 275.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 955 (1994), UN SCOR, 3453rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/955 (8 November 1994) at preambular para. 8.

  276. 276.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, 3436th Mtg., 14 October 1994, UN Doc. S/PRST/1994/59 (14 October 1994) at para.7; UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, 3472nd Mtg., 30 November 1994, UN Doc. S/PRST/1994/75 (30 November 1994) at para. 3; cf. also UN Security Council, Resolution 1029 (1995), UN SCOR, 3605th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1029 (1995) (12 December 1995) at preambular para. 2 (recalling the “necessity for the arrest of persons suspected of committing genocide in Rwanda”).

  277. 277.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3414th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/1994/2 (10 August 1994) at para. 5.

  278. 278.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3588th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/1995/53 (17 October 1995) at para. 5.

  279. 279.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 925 (1994), UN SCOR, 3388th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/925 (1994) (8 June 1994) at preambular para. 6.

  280. 280.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1012 (1995), UN SCOR, 3571st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1012 (1995) (28 August 1995) at para. 1.

  281. 281.

    See United Nation, Final Report of the International Commission of Inquiry Concerning the Assassination of the President of Burundi on 21 October 1993 and the Massacres that Followed, UN Doc. S/1996/682 (22 August 1996) at para. 483; cf. also William A. Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crime of crimes, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) at 553.

  282. 282.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1012 (1995), UN SCOR, 3571st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1012 (1995) (28 August 1995) at preambular para. 7.

  283. 283.

    See the Secretary-General’s warning in 1996 above, text accompanying note 203.

  284. 284.

    See United Nations, Initial report on the human rights situation in Burundi, submitted by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, in accordance with Commission resolution 1995/90, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1996/16/Add.1 (27 February 1996) at para. 50.

  285. 285.

    See United Nations, Extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions: Report by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Bacre Waly Ndiaye, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1995/73, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1996/4 (25 January 1996) at para. 90; cf. also William A. Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crime of crimes, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) at 566.

  286. 286.

    See United Nations, Extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions: Report by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Bacre Waly Ndiaye, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1996/74, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1997/60 (24 December 1996) at para. 43.

  287. 287.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3616th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/1996/1 (5 January 1996) at para. 1; UN Security Council, Resolution 1049 (1996), UN SCOR, 3639th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1049 (1996) (5 March 1996) at preambular paras. 4-5.

  288. 288.

    See United Nations, Extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions: Report by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Bacre Waly Ndiaye, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1996/74, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1997/60 (24 December 1996) at para. 42; cf. also William A. Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crime of crimes, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) at 566.

  289. 289.

    See Burundi, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3571st Mtg., 28 August 1995, UN Doc. S/PV.3571, 2 at 3-4 (reporting that both the presidential movement and the opposition parties had acknowledged that the massacres which had followed the killing of President Ndadaye in 1993 had been genocide, and blaming rebel groups for having planned a genocide alike that in Rwanda); Burundi, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3695th Mtg., 30 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3695, 4 at 4 (speaking of a “patriotic task […] to save the people of Burundi from another genocide”). At the same time, the government of Burundi rejected an analogy between the cases of Burundi and Rwanda since, in the latter case, the government had been implicated in the genocide whereas in Burundi it blamed “terrorist groups” for having attempted to carry out a “Rwandese-style” genocide, see Burundi, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3623rd Mtg., 29 January 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3623, 2 at 4. Accordingly, it criticized the economic embargo on the country which it considered to have such devastating effects that another genocide loomed, see Burundi, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 2 at 6. Botswana in turn criticized the military regime in Burundi for using a possible genocide as a pretext to justify its coup against the legitimate government, see Botswana, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 15 at 16.

  290. 290.

    See e.g. United States, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3623rd Mtg., 29 January 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3623, 14 at 15, and id., Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3639th Mtg., 5 March 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3639, 12 at 13 (quoting the Special Rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights for the finding of “an increasingly marked genocidal trend” in Burundi); Indonesia, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3639th Mtg., 5 March 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3639, 9 at 10,11; Honduras, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3639th Mtg., 5 March 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3639, 13 at 14; Australia, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 11 at 11; Japan, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 13 at 13; Honduras, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 26 at 26; Indonesia, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 20 at 20; Italy, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 21 at 21; Russian Federation, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 29 at 29. As regards the 1993 massacres, Indonesia had already previously accepted their qualification as genocide during the Security Council meeting of 28 August 1995, see Indonesia, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3571st Mtg., 28 August 1995, UN Doc. S/PV.3571, 13 at 13.

  291. 291.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3511th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/1995/13 (29 March 1995) at para. 3.

  292. 292.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1012 (1995), UN SCOR, 3571st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1012 (1995) (28 August 1995) at preambular para. 12 (“Deeply concerned that impunity creates contempt for law and leads to violations of international humanitarian law”).

  293. 293.

    See Rwanda, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3574th Mtg., 7 September 1995, UN Doc. S/PV.3574, 9 at 10. Obviously, however, prosecution and punishment of those responsible for the genocide committed against the Tutsi population in 1994 was as such a major consideration for the post-genocide government of Rwanda, see e.g. Rwanda, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3571st Mtg., 28 August 1995, UN Doc. S/PV.3571, 11 at 12 (criticizing the Security Council for not denouncing the perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide as well as the countries and governments supposedly supporting them, and asserting that the Security Council’s efforts in Burundi would have no credibility unless it put an end to the impunity of those responsible for the Rwandan genocide).

  294. 294.

    Cf. Rwanda, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3571st Mtg., 28 August 1995, UN Doc. S/PV.3571, 11 at 12.

  295. 295.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 3616th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/1996/1 (5 January 1996) at para. 1.

  296. 296.

    See Security Council, Resolution 1040 (1996), UN SCOR, 3623rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1040 (1996) (29 January 1996) at preambular para. 3 and op. para. 4; UN Security Council, Resolution 1049 (1996), UN SCOR, 3639th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1049 (1996) (5 March 1996) at op. para. 5.

  297. 297.

    See Rwanda, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3639th Mtg., 5 March 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3639, 23 at 24.

  298. 298.

    See Indonesia, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3639th Mtg., 5 March 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3639, 9 at 10; United States, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3639th Mtg., 5 March 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3639, 12 at 13.

  299. 299.

    See Australia, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 11 at 11.

  300. 300.

    See Chile, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in Burundi, 3692nd Mtg., 28 August 1996, UN Doc. S/PV.3692, 17 at 17-18.

  301. 301.

    Ibid .

  302. 302.

    See United Nations, Report of the Independent Inquiry into the actions of the United Nations during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, 15 December 1999, UN Doc. S/1999/1257 (16 December 1999) 3 at 53, 55-56.

  303. 303.

    Ibid ., at 57.

  304. 304.

    Cf. amongst the many references that are made in the ICISS report to the experience of the Rwandan genocide only International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at paras. 1.1, 1.4, 1.6 and 2.2., cf. also already in Part 1.3.2 above.

  305. 305.

    See on these debates in further detail Part 5.1 above.

  306. 306.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 114.

  307. 307.

    Ibid ., at 114-115.

  308. 308.

    Ibid ., at 115.

  309. 309.

    Ibid .

  310. 310.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1246 (1999), UN SCOR, 4013th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1246 (1999) (11 June 1999) at para. 1.

  311. 311.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 115.

  312. 312.

    Ibid . (noting 78.5 percent for independence, with 98 percent of registered East Timorese voting).

  313. 313.

    Ibid .

  314. 314.

    Ibid .

  315. 315.

    Ibid .

  316. 316.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1264 (1999), UN SCOR, 4045th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1264 (1999) (15 September 1999) at op. para. 3; see also International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 115.

  317. 317.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 117.

  318. 318.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1272 (1999), UN SCOR, 4057th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1272 (1999) (25 October 1999) at op. para. 1.

  319. 319.

    See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect: Research, Bibliography, Background: Supplementary Volume to the Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001) at 117.

  320. 320.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1410 (2002), UN SCOR, 4534th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1410 (2002) (17 May 2002) at op. para. 1.

  321. 321.

    For a positive assessment of the role which the intervention of the United Nations played in ending the Burundian civil war, cf. Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 217; Detlev Wolter, A United Nations for the 21st Century: From Reaction to Prevention: Towards an Effective and Efficient International Regime for Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2007) at 212 (considering the intervention in Burundi as a positive example of a swift deployment of UN forces that played a critical role in the promotion of peace in the country).

  322. 322.

    See Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 216.

  323. 323.

    Ibid .

  324. 324.

    Ibid .

  325. 325.

    Cf. Detlev Wolter, A United Nations for the 21st Century: From Reaction to Prevention: Towards an Effective and Efficient International Regime for Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2007) at 188; Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 216.

  326. 326.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, 4749th Mtg., 2 May 2003, UN Doc. S/PRST/2003/4 (2 May 2003) para. 3.

  327. 327.

    See Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 216.

  328. 328.

    See text accompanying notes 282 to 290 above.

  329. 329.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1545 (2004), UN SCOR, 4975th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1545 (2004) (21 May 2004) at op. paras. 2-3, 5; see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 216-217.

  330. 330.

    Cf. UN Security Council, Resolution 1719 (2006), UN SCOR, 5554th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1719 (2006) (25 October 2006) at preambular para. 4.

  331. 331.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Burundi, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/burundi.php?page=all&print=true>.

  332. 332.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1719 (2006), UN SCOR, 5554th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1719 (2006) (25 October 2006) at op. paras. 1-2.

  333. 333.

    See UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Secretary-General congratulates Burundi as UN Operation Concludes Mandate, Reaffirms Commitment to Help Consolidate Peace, 2 January 2007, UN Doc. SG/SM/10821, online: United Nations <http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/sgsm10821.doc.htm>.

  334. 334.

    Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda, see IGAD, About Us, online: IGAD <http://igad.int/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93&Itemid=124>; Reuters, East African bloc admits South Sudan as member, online: Reuters <http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/25/ozabs-southsudan-igad-idAFJOE7AO0A820111125>.

  335. 335.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia, Shamsul Bari, UN Doc. A/HRC/12/44 (17 September 2009) at para 1.

  336. 336.

    See United Nations, The situation of human rights in Somalia: Note by the secretariat, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2001/105 (13 March 2001) at para. 10.

  337. 337.

    See International Crisis Group, Salvaging Somalia’s Chance for Peace, ICG Africa Briefing, 9 December 2002, online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/horn-of-africa/somalia/B011%20Salvaging%20Somalias%20Chance%20For%20Peace.pdf> at 2.

  338. 338.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, UN Doc. S/2004/804 (8 October 2004) at paras. 1-9; United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, S/2005/89 (18 February 2005) at paras. 1-2; United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia, Ghanim Alnajjar, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/117 (11 March 2005) at para. 6.

  339. 339.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Somalia, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/somalia.php?page=all&print=true>.

  340. 340.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Somalia, S/2007/259 (7 May 2007) at para. 5.

  341. 341.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Somalia, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/somalia.php?page=all&print=true>.

  342. 342.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia, Shamsul Bari, A/HRC/12/44 (17 September 2009) at para 1.

  343. 343.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, S/2006/838 (23 October 2006) at paras. 2, 4; United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, S/2006/418 (20 June 2006) at para. 5.

  344. 344.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Somalia, UN Doc. S/2007/259 (7 May 2007) at para. 11.

  345. 345.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, S/2006/838 (23 October 2006) at paras. 2, 5-6.

  346. 346.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, S/2007/115 (28 February 2007) at paras. 7-9.

  347. 347.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Somalia, UN Doc. S/2008/352 (30 May 2008) at para. 13.

  348. 348.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Somalia, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/somalia.php?page=all&print=true>.

  349. 349.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia, S/2008/466 (16 July 2008) at paras. 1-10.

  350. 350.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Somalia, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/somalia.php?page=all&print=true>.

  351. 351.

    Ibid .

  352. 352.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia, Shamsul Bari, UN Doc. A/HRC/13/65 (23 March 2010) at 2.

  353. 353.

    Ibid .

  354. 354.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia, Shamsul Bari, UN Doc. A/HRC/15/48 (16 September 2010) at para. 15.

  355. 355.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1425 (2002), UN SCOR, 4580th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1425 (2002) (22 July 2002) at op. para. 3.

  356. 356.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1474 (2003), UN SCOR, 4737th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1474 (2003) (8 April 2003) at op. para. 3(f); UN Security Council, Resolution 1519 (2003), UN SCOR, 4885th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1519 (2003) (16 December 2003) at op. para. 2(e).

  357. 357.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Somalia, UN Doc. S/2007/259 (7 May 2007) at para. 5.

  358. 358.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1744 (2007), UN SCOR, 5633rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1744 (2007) (20 February 2007) at op. para. 4; see also United Nations, Report of the independent expert appointed by the Secretary-General on the situation of human rights in Somalia (Mr Ghanim Alnajjar), UN Doc. A/HRC/7/26 (17 March 2008) at para. 7.

  359. 359.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Somalia, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/somalia.php?page=all&print=true>.

  360. 360.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1863 (2009), UN SCOR, 6068th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1863 (16 January 2009) at op. paras. 4, 10.

  361. 361.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 10.

  362. 362.

    See UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Report of the Secretary-General on Somalia pursuant to Security Council resolution 1863 (2009), UN Doc. S/2009/210 (16 April 2009) at paras. 82-84.

  363. 363.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1872 (2009), UN SCOR, 6127th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1872 (2009) (26 May 2009) at op. paras. 13, 16-17.

  364. 364.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1910 (2010), UN SCOR, 6266th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1910 (28 January 2010) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1964 (2010), UN SCOR, 6461st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1964 (2010) (22 December 2010) at op. para. 1; Resolution 2010 (2011), UN SCOR, 6626th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2010 (2011) (30 September 2011) at op. para. 1; Resolution 2072 (2012), UN SCOR, 6853rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2072 (2012) (31 October 2012); Resolution 2073 (2012), UN SCOR, 6854th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2073 (2012) (7 November 2012) at op. para. 1; Resolution 2093 (2013), UN SCOR, 6929th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2093 (2013) (6 March 2013) at op. para. 1; Resolution 2124 (2013), UN SCOR, 7056th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2124 (2013) (12 November 2013) at op. para. 1.

  365. 365.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1964 (2010), UN SCOR, 6461st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1964 (2010) (22 December 2010) at op. para. 2 (increasing the authorized strength from 8,000 to 12,000); Resolution 2036 (2012), UN SCOR, 6718th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2036 (2012) (22 February 2012) at op. para. 2 (increasing the authorized strength from 12,000 to 17,731); Resolution 2124 (2013), UN SCOR, 7056th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2124 (2013) (12 November 2013) at op. para. 3 (increasing the authorized strength from 17,731 to 22,126).

  366. 366.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2124 (2013), UN SCOR, 7056th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2124 (2013) (12 November 2013) at op. para. 4.

  367. 367.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2063 (2012), UN SCOR, 6819th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2063 (2012) (31 July 2012) at op. para. 1; on the four sectors according to the AMISOM strategic concept of 5 January 2012, cf. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Special report of the Secretary-General on Somalia, UN Doc. S/2012/74 (31 January 2012) at para. 24.

  368. 368.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2093 (2013), UN SCOR, 6929th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2093 (2013) (6 March 2013) at op. para. 1(f).

  369. 369.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1844 (2008), UN SCOR, 6019th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1844 (2008) (20 November 2008) at op. para. 8.

  370. 370.

    Ibid ., at op. paras. 1, 3 and 7.

  371. 371.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2002 (2011), UN SCOR, 6596st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2002 (2011) (29 July 2011) at op. para. 1(d)-(e).

  372. 372.

    See Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6125th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2009/15 (15 May 2009) at para. 5.

  373. 373.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1907 (2009), UN SCOR, 6254th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1907 (2009) (23 December 2009) at preambular paras. 3 and 7 and op. paras. 1-2, 5, 10, 12-13, 15.

  374. 374.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2023 (2011), UN SCOR, 6674th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2023 (2011) (5 December 2011) at op. paras. 11 and 13.

  375. 375.

    In November 2009, the transitional period was extended for two years, see Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Somalia, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/somalia.php?page=all&print=true>. In June 2011, it was effectively extended once again until August 2012 in the Kampala Accord between the Somali President and the Speaker of the parliament, ibid .

  376. 376.

    Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Somalia, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/somalia.php?page=all&print=true>.

  377. 377.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2067 (2012), UN SCOR, 6837th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2067 (2012) (18 September 2012) at preambular para. 6.

  378. 378.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2093 (2013), UN SCOR, 6929th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2093 (2013) (6 March 2013) at op. para. 33.

  379. 379.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2102 (2013), UN SCOR, 6959th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2102 (2013) (2 May 2013) at op. para. 1.

  380. 380.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 2.

  381. 381.

    Ibid .

  382. 382.

    See Human Rights Watch, Forced to Flee: Violence Against the Tutsis in Zaire, Vol. 8 No. 2(A) (July 1996), online: Human Rights Watch <http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1996/Zaire.htm>; see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 211.

  383. 383.

    Human Rights Watch mentions a figure of about 720,000 Hutus that fled to Goma, the capital of North Kivu, alone, see Human Rights Watch, Forced to Flee: Violence Against the Tutsis in Zaire, Vol. 8 No. 2(A) (July 1996), online: Human Rights Watch <http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1996/Zaire.htm>; see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 211.

  384. 384.

    See Human Rights Watch, Forced to Flee: Violence Against the Tutsis in Zaire, Vol. 8 No. 2(A) (July 1996), online: Human Rights Watch <http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1996/Zaire.htm>; see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 211.

  385. 385.

    Cf. International Crisis Group, Africa’s Seven-Nation War, Democratic Republic of Congo Report N° 4 (21 May 1999), online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/central-africa/dr-congo/Africas%20Seven-Nation%20War> at i.

  386. 386.

    Ibid .

  387. 387.

    Ibid .; cf. also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 211-212.

  388. 388.

    Cf. Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 213.

  389. 389.

    See International Crisis Group, From Kabila to Kabila: Prospects for Peace in the Congo, Africa Report N° 27 (16 March 2001), online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/central-africa/dr-congo/From%20Kabila%20to%20Kabila%20Prospects%20for%20Peace%20in%20the%20Congo> at 1.

  390. 390.

    See Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 213-214.

  391. 391.

    Ibid ., at 212.

  392. 392.

    Ibid .

  393. 393.

    See International Rescue Committee, IRC Study Reveals 31,000 Die Monthly in Congo Conflict and 3.8 Million Died in Past Six Years. When Will the World Pay Attention?, online: International Rescue Committee <http://www.rescue.org/news/irc-study-reveals-31000-die-monthly-congo-conflict-and-38-million-died-past-six-years-when-will-3538>; see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 212.

  394. 394.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Democratic Republic of the Congo, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/democratic-republic-of-the-congo.php?page=all&print=true>.

  395. 395.

    Cf. ibid .

  396. 396.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1234 (1999), UN SCOR, 3993rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1234 (9 April 1999) at op. paras. 6-7; see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 212-213.

  397. 397.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1258 (1999), UN SCOR, 4032nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1258 (6 August 1999) at op. paras. 2, 8; UN Security Council, Resolution 1273 (1999), UN SCOR, 4060th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1273 (5 November 1999) at op. para. 1 (extending the mandate of the liaison mission until 15 January 2000); see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 213.

  398. 398.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1279 (1999), UN SCOR, 4076th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1279 (30 November 1999) at op. para. 4.

  399. 399.

    For extensions of the MONUC mandate, see UN Security Council, Resolution 1291 (2000), UN SCOR, 4104th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1291 (24 February 2000) at op. para. 3; Resolution 1316 (2000), UN SCOR, 4189th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1316 (23 August 2000) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1323 (2000), UN SCOR, 4207th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1323 (13 October 2000) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1332 (2000), UN SCOR, 4247th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1332 (14 December 2000) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1332 (2000), UN SCOR, 4247th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1332 (14 December 2000); Resolution 1355 (2001), UN SCOR, 4329th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1355 (15 June 2001) at op. para. 29; Resolution 1417 (2002), UN SCOR, 4554th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1417 (14 June 2002) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1489 (2003), UN SCOR, 4780th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1489 (26 June 2003) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1493 (2003), UN SCOR, 4797th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1493 (28 July 2003) at op. para. 2; Resolution 1555 (2004), UN SCOR, 5014th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1555 (29 July 2004) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1565 (2004), UN SCOR, 5048th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1565 (1 October 2004) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1592 (2005), UN SCOR, 5155th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1592 (30 March 2005) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1628 (2005), UN SCOR, 5272nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1628 (30 September 2005) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1635 (2005), UN SCOR, 5296th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1635 (28 October 2005) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1711 (2006), UN SCOR, 5541st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1711 (29 September 2006) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1742 (2007), UN SCOR, 5630th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1742 (15 February 2007) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1751 (2007), UN SCOR, 5660th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1751 (13 April 2007) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1756 (2007), UN SCOR, 5674th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1756 (15 May 2007) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1794 (2007), UN SCOR, 5814th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1794 (21 December 2007) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1856 (2008), UN SCOR, 6055th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1856 (22 December 2008) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1906 (2009), UN SCOR, 6253rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1906 (23 December 2009) at op. para. 1; see also generally on MONUC Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 213-215.

  400. 400.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1925 (2010), UN SCOR, 6324th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1925 (28 May 2010) at op. para. 1

  401. 401.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1291 (2000), UN SCOR, 4104th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1291 (24 February 2000) at op. paras. 4, 7; see also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 213.

  402. 402.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1291 (2000), UN SCOR, 4104th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1291 (24 February 2000) at op. para 8; see also UN Security Council, Resolution 1493 (2003), UN SCOR, 4797th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1493 (28 July 2003) at op. para. 25.

  403. 403.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1484 (2003), UN SCOR, 4764th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1483 (30 May 2003) at op. paras. 1, 4; cf. also Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 214.

  404. 404.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1906 (2009), UN SCOR, 6253rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1906 (2009) (23 December 2009) at op. paras. 5 (a) and 7.

  405. 405.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1925 (2010), UN SCOR, 6324th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1925 (28 May 2010) at op. para. 12 (a) and (b).

  406. 406.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2098 (2013), UN SCOR, 6943rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2098 (2013) (28 March 2013) at op. paras. 9 and 12 (b).

  407. 407.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 12 (a).

  408. 408.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Democratic Republic of the Congo, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/democratic-republic-of-the-congo.php?page=all&print=true>.

  409. 409.

    Ibid .

  410. 410.

    Ibid .

  411. 411.

    See UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, UN Doc. S/2013/757 (17 December 2013) at para. 40.

  412. 412.

    Ibid ., at para. 89.

  413. 413.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1493 (2003), UN SCOR, 4797th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1493 (28 July 2003) at op. para. 20.

  414. 414.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1596 (2005), UN SCOR, 5163rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1596 (2005) (18 April 2005) at op. para. 1.

  415. 415.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1533 (2004), UN SCOR, 4926th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1533 (2004) (12 March 2004) at op. paras. 3-4, 8 and 10.

  416. 416.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1596 (2005), UN SCOR, 5163rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1596 (2005) (18 April 2005) at op. paras. 13 and 15.

  417. 417.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Resolution 1649 (2005), UN SCOR, 5340th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1649 (21 December 2005) at op. para. 2.

  418. 418.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1698 (2006), UN SCOR, 5502nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1698 (2006) (31 July 2006) at op. para. 13.

  419. 419.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Democratic Republic of the Congo, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/democratic-republic-of-the-congo.php?page=all&print=true>.

  420. 420.

    Cf. ibid .

  421. 421.

    Cf. ibid .

  422. 422.

    See United Nations, Final Report of Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo, UN Doc. S/2014/42 (12 December 2013) 3 at 3.

  423. 423.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, UN Doc. S/2004/453 (3 June 2004) at para. 5 (noting that the Sudan had been engulfed in civil conflict for all but 11 of the 48 years which had passed since its independence).

  424. 424.

    See International Crisis Group, God, Oil and Country: Changing the Logic of War in Sudan, ICG Africa Report N° 39 (2002), online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/horn-of-africa/sudan/God%20Oil%20and%20Country%20Changing%20the%20Logic%20of%20War%20in%20Sudan.pdf> at 9.

  425. 425.

    Ibid ., at 8.

  426. 426.

    See, on the whole subject, ibid .

  427. 427.

    Ibid ., at 9.

  428. 428.

    Ibid ., at 9-11.

  429. 429.

    Ibid ., at 12.

  430. 430.

    Ibid ., at 13.

  431. 431.

    Ibid ., at 14.

  432. 432.

    See United Nations, Interim report of the Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Sudan, UN Doc. A/55/374 (11 September 2000) at paras. 12-14.

  433. 433.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, UN Doc. S/2004/453 (3 June 2004) at para. 6.

  434. 434.

    IGAD has developed out of the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD), which had been founded in 1986 by Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda. In 1993, Eritrea joined the organization and in 2011 newly independent South Sudan became a member. In 1996, IGADD was renamed IGAD and given a broader mandate of regional cooperation as well as new organizational structures; see IGAD, About Us, online: IGAD <http://igad.int/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93&Itemid=124>.

  435. 435.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, UN Doc. S/2004/453 (3 June 2004) at para. 4; see also generally on these developments UNMIS, UNMIS Background, online: UNMIS <http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unmis/background.shtml>, with references to the Machakos Protocol of 20 July 2002, the Agreement on Wealth Sharing of 7 January 2004, and the Protocol on Power Sharing of 26 May 2004.

  436. 436.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1547 (2004), UN SCOR, 4988th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1547 (2004) (11 June 2004) at op. paras. 1-2.

  437. 437.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, S/2005/57 (31 January 2005) at para. 2.

  438. 438.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1590 (2005), UN SCOR, 5151st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1590 (2005) (24 March 2005) at op. para. 1.

  439. 439.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 4.

  440. 440.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan/South Sudan, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudansouth-sudan.php?page=all&print=true>.

  441. 441.

    See UNMIS, UNMIS Background, online: UNMIS <http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unmis/background.shtml>.

  442. 442.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent expert in the situation of human rights in the Sudan, Mohamed Chande Othman, UN Doc. A/HRC/18/40 (22 August 2011) at para. 6.

  443. 443.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on South Sudan, UN Doc. S/2011/678 (2 November 2011) at para. 3.

  444. 444.

    See e.g. United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in the Sudan, UN Doc. S/2009/545 (21 October 2009) at para. 2.

  445. 445.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan/South Sudan, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudansouth-sudan.php?page=all&print=true>.

  446. 446.

    A separate referendum on the future of Abyei had been envisaged for January 2011 but was not conducted, due inter alia to disagreement over who would be entitled to vote, see UNMIS, UNMIS Background, online: UNMIS <http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unmis/background.shtml>.

  447. 447.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan/South Sudan, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudansouth-sudan.php?page=all&print=true>.

  448. 448.

    See Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 5923rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2008/24 (24 June 2008) at para. 1.

  449. 449.

    Ibid ., at para. 4.

  450. 450.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan/South Sudan, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudansouth-sudan.php?page=all&print=true>.

  451. 451.

    Ibid .

  452. 452.

    See Sudan, Letter dated 27 May 2011 from the Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Sudan to the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/2011/333, Annex.

  453. 453.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1997 (2011), UN SCOR, 6579th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1997 (2011) (11 July 2011) at preambular para. 2 and op. para. 1.

  454. 454.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1996 (2011), UN SCOR, 6576th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1996 (2011) (8 July 2011) at op. para. 1 and 3.

  455. 455.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 3 (b).

  456. 456.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 3 (b) (v).

  457. 457.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1990 (2011), UN SCOR, 6567th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1990 (2011) (27 June 2011) at op. paras. 1-2.

  458. 458.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2024 (2011), UN SCOR, 6683rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2024 (2011) (14 December 2011) at op. para. 1.

  459. 459.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1990 (2011), UN SCOR, 6567th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1990 (2011) (27 June 2011) at op. para. 3(d).

  460. 460.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2046 (2012), UN SCOR, 6764th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2046 (2012) (2 May 2012) at op. paras. 1 and 6.

  461. 461.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan/South Sudan, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudansouth-sudan.php?page=all&print=true>.

  462. 462.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the High-Level Mission on the situation of human rights in Darfur pursuant to Human Rights Council decision S-4/101, UN Doc. A/HRC/4/80 (9 March 2007) at para. 24 and n. 6; for a detailed sketch of the background to the Darfur conflict, cf. also United Nations, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General, 25 January 2005, online: United Nation <http://www.un.org/news/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf> at paras. 40-62.

  463. 463.

    Cf. United Nations, Situation of human rights in the Sudan: Report of the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Gáspár Bíró, submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1996/73, E/CN.4/1997/58 (3 February 1997) at para. 36; cf. also United Nations, Report of the High-Level Mission on the situation of human rights in Darfur pursuant to Human Rights Council decision S-4/101, UN Doc. A/HRC/4/80 (9 March 2007) at para. 26 (noting intensified fighting between 1995 and 1998).

  464. 464.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the High-Level Mission on the situation of human rights in Darfur pursuant to Human Rights Council decision S-4/101, UN Doc. A/HRC/4/80 (9 March 2007) at para. 26.

  465. 465.

    See United Nations, Situation of human rights in the Sudan: Report of the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Gáspár Bíró, submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1996/73, E/CN.4/1997/58 (3 February 1997) at para. 36.

  466. 466.

    See United Nations, Report of the High-Level Mission on the situation of human rights in Darfur pursuant to Human Rights Council decision S-4/101, UN Doc. A/HRC/4/80 (9 March 2007) at para. 26.

  467. 467.

    Ibid ., at para. 27.

  468. 468.

    Ibid .

  469. 469.

    Ibid ., at para. 28.

  470. 470.

    Ibid .

  471. 471.

    Ibid ., at para. 29.

  472. 472.

    Ibid .

  473. 473.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on Darfur, UN Doc. S/2006/591 (28 July 2006) at para. 3.

  474. 474.

    See United Nations, Report of the High-Level Mission on the situation of human rights in Darfur pursuant to Human Rights Council decision S-4/101, UN Doc. A/HRC/4/80 (9 March 2007) at para. 29.

  475. 475.

    Cf. ibid ., at paras. 30-31.

  476. 476.

    Cf. Press Briefing on Humanitarian Crisis in Darfur, Sudan, 2 April 2004, online: United Nations <http://www.un.org/News/briefings/docs/2004/egelandbrf.DOC.htm>; Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true>.

  477. 477.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 4978th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2004/18 (25 May 2004).

  478. 478.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1556 (2004), UN SCOR, 5015th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1556 (2004) (30 July 2004) at op. paras. 1, 7.

  479. 479.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1564 (2004), UN SCOR, 5040th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1564 (2004) (18 September 2004) at op. para. 1; see also Christopher Verlage, Responsibility to Protect (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009) at 365.

  480. 480.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1564 (2004), UN SCOR, 5040th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1564 (2004) (18 September 2004) at op. para. 15.

  481. 481.

    See UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Louise Arbour, Statement in the Security Council meeting on Reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5125th Mtg., 16 February 2005, UN Doc. S/PV.5125, 3 at 4-5.

  482. 482.

    Ibid ., at 4.

  483. 483.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the Sudan pursuant to paragraphs 6, 13 and 16 of Security Council resolution 1556 (2004), paragraph 15 of Security Council 1564 (2004) and paragraph 17 of Security Council resolution 1574 (2004), UN Doc. S/2005/68 (4 February 2005) at para. 3; United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in the Sudan, Emmanuel Akwei Addo, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/11 (28 February 2005) at para. 22.

  484. 484.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in the Sudan, Emmanuel Akwei Addo, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/11 (28 February 2005) at 2.

  485. 485.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1591 (2005), UN SCOR, 5153rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1591 (2005) (29 March 2005) at op. paras. 3(a)-(b), (d)-(e).

  486. 486.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1627 (2006), UN SCOR, 5423rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1627 (2006) (25 April 2006) at op. para. 1.

  487. 487.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1593 (2005), UN SCOR, 5158th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1706 (2005) (31 March 2005) at op. para. 1.

  488. 488.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true>.

  489. 489.

    See Allan Vic Mansaray, “AMIS in Darfur: Africa’s litmus test in peacekeeping and political mediation”, (2009) 18:1 African Security Review 35 at 37.

  490. 490.

    Ibid .; cf. also Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true>; Christopher Verlage, Responsibility to Protect (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009) at 364.

  491. 491.

    See United Nations, Report of the High-Level Mission on the situation of human rights in Darfur pursuant to Human Rights Council decision S-4/101, UN Doc. A/HRC/4/80 (9 March 2007) at para. 32.

  492. 492.

    See Christopher Verlage, Responsibility to Protect (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009) at 364-365.

  493. 493.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true>.

  494. 494.

    See Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 5364th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2006/5 (3 February 2006) at para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 1663 (2006), UN SCOR, 5396th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1663 (2006) (24 March 2006) at op. para. 4.

  495. 495.

    See United Nations, Report of the High-Level Mission on the situation of human rights in Darfur pursuant to Human Rights Council decision S-4/101, UN Doc. A/HRC/4/80 (9 March 2007) at para. 32.

  496. 496.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1679 (2006), UN SCOR, 5439th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1679 (16 March 2006) at preambular para. 5 and op. para. 3.

  497. 497.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1706 (2006), UN SCOR, 5519th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1706 (2006) (31 August 2006) at op. paras. 1, 3, 8, 12.

  498. 498.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 1.

  499. 499.

    See Max Matthews, “Tracking the Emergence of a New International Norm: The Responsibility to Protect and the Crisis in Darfur” (2008) 31 Boston College International & Comparative Law Review 137 at 145.

  500. 500.

    See United Nations, Report of the High-Level Mission on the situation of human rights in Darfur pursuant to Human Rights Council decision S-4/101, UN Doc. A/HRC/4/80 (9 March 2007) at para. 33.

  501. 501.

    Ibid ., at 2.

  502. 502.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1769 (2007), UN SCOR, 5727th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1769 (2007) (31 July 2007) at op. paras. 1, 15(a).

  503. 503.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true>.

  504. 504.

    Cf. ibid . (reporting that permission for night flights was granted only in August 2008, and referring to several undertakings by the government of Sudan in October 2008 to assist with expediting the deployment of UNAMID).

  505. 505.

    Cf. Christopher Verlage, Responsibility to Protect (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009) at 367.

  506. 506.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true> (especially concerning attacks on 8 January 2008 and 8 July 2008).

  507. 507.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true>.

  508. 508.

    Cf. ibid .

  509. 509.

    Cf. ibid .

  510. 510.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the deployment of the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur, S/2008/443 (7 July 2008) at paras. 15, 18.

  511. 511.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true>.

  512. 512.

    Cf. ibid .

  513. 513.

    See United Nations, Update on the report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in the Sudan, Mohammed Chande Othman: Status of implementation of the compilation of recommendations of the Group of Experts for the Government of the Sudan with regard to the implementation of Human Rights Council resolution 4/8, pursuant to Council resolutions 6/34, 6/35, 7/16 and 11/10, UN Doc. A/HRC 15/57 (2 September 2010) at para. 11.

  514. 514.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur, S/2010/382 (14 July 2010) at para. 34 (noting that about 300,000 had been displaced both in 2007 and 2008, another 175,000 in 2009, and 116,000 in the first half of 2010).

  515. 515.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true>.

  516. 516.

    Ibid .

  517. 517.

    Ibid .

  518. 518.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1828 (2008), UN SCOR, 5947th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1828 (2008) (31 July 2008) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1881 (2009), UN SCOR, 6175th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1881 (2009) (30 July 2009) at op. para. 1; Resolution 1935 (2010), UN SCOR, 6366th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1935 (2010) (30 July 2010) at op. para. 1; Resolution 2003 (2011), UN SCOR, 6597th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2003 (2011) (29 July 2011) at op. para. 1; Resolution 2063 (2012), UN SCOR, 6819th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2063 (2012) (31 July 2012) at op. para. 1; Resolution 2113 (2013), UN SCOR, 7013th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2113 (2013) (30 July 2013) at op. para. 1.

  519. 519.

    Cf. Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Sudan (Darfur), online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/sudan-darfur.php?page=all&print=true>.

  520. 520.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, Doudou Diène, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/72 (9 January 2012) at para. 9.

  521. 521.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2003/374 (26 March 2003) at paras. 3-4.

  522. 522.

    Ibid ., at para. 8.

  523. 523.

    Ibid ., at paras. 9-10.

  524. 524.

    Ibid ., at paras. 11-12.

  525. 525.

    Ibid ., at para. 13.

  526. 526.

    Ibid ., at paras. 17-19, 28; United Nations, First Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2003/801 (8 August 2003) at para. 8.

  527. 527.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1479 (2003), UN SCOR, 4754th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1479 (2003) (13 May 2003) at op. para. 2.

  528. 528.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1528 (2004), UN SCOR, 4918th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1528 (2004) (27 February 2004) at op. para. 1.

  529. 529.

    See United Nations, First Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2004/443 (2 June 2004) at paras. 1, 25.

  530. 530.

    See United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2006/835 (25 October 2006) at para. 2.

  531. 531.

    See United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. A/HRC/16/79 (25 February 2011) at para. 3.

  532. 532.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, Doudou Diène, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/72 (9 January 2012) at para. 9.

  533. 533.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. A/HRC/16/79 (25 February 2011) at para. 3.

  534. 534.

    Ibid ., at para 9.

  535. 535.

    Ibid .

  536. 536.

    Cf. ibid .

  537. 537.

    Cf. ibid .

  538. 538.

    See on the various meetings United Nations, Twenty-seventh progress report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2011/211 (30 March 2011), especially at paras. 25-35.

  539. 539.

    United Nations, Twenty-seventh progress report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2011/211 (30 March 2011), especially at para. 24.

  540. 540.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1962 (2010), UN SCOR, 6458th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1962 (2010) (20 December 2010) at op. paras. 5-6; UN Security Council, Resolution 1967 (2011), UN SCOR, 6469th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1967 (2011) (19 January 2011) at op. paras. 1-5.

  541. 541.

    See United Nations, Twenty-seventh progress report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2011/211 (30 March 2011), especially at paras. 40, 70, 85.

  542. 542.

    Ibid ., at para. 53.

  543. 543.

    Ibid .

  544. 544.

    Ibid ., at para. 56.

  545. 545.

    See United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/49 (14 June 2011) at paras. 34-37.

  546. 546.

    See United Nations, Twenty-eighth progress report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2011/387 (24 June 2011) at para. 2.

  547. 547.

    See United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/49 (14 June 2011) at para. 6.

  548. 548.

    See United Nations, Twenty-eighth progress report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2011/387 (24 June 2011) at paras. 2-3.

  549. 549.

    See United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/49 (14 June 2011) at para. 6; United Nations, Twenty-eighth progress report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2011/387 (24 June 2011) at para. 2.

  550. 550.

    See United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/49 (14 June 2011) at paras. 21-24.

  551. 551.

    See United Nations, Twenty-eighth progress report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2011/387 (24 June 2011) at para. 4, 6.

  552. 552.

    See United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/49 (14 June 2011) at para. 15

  553. 553.

    Ibid ., at paras. 40, 46.

  554. 554.

    See ECOWAS Authority of Heads of State and Government, Resolution A/RES.1/03/11 (24 March 2011), reproduced in Nigeria, Letter dated 24 March 2011 from the Permanent Representative of Nigeria to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/2011/182, Annex.

  555. 555.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1975 (2011), UN SCOR, 6508th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1975 (2011) (30 March 2011) at op. para. 12 and Annex I.

  556. 556.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1975 (2011), UN SCOR, 6508th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1975 (2011) (30 March 2011) at op. para. 6.

  557. 557.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1946 (2010), UN SCOR, 6402nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1946 (2010) (15 October 2010) at op. para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 1962 (2010), UN SCOR, 6458th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1962 (2010) (20 December 2010) at op. para. 17.

  558. 558.

    See United Nations, Twenty-eighth progress report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Doc. S/2011/387 (24 June 2011) at paras. 5-9.

  559. 559.

    For an insightful outline of the origins and nature of the Qadhafi regime, see the report by the International Crisis Group, Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (V): Making Sense of Libya, Crisis Group Middle East/North Africa Report N°107 (6 June 2011), online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/North%20Africa/107%20-%20Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20Middle%20East%20V%20-%20Making%20Sense%20of%20Libya> at 6-14.

  560. 560.

    See on this first phase Human Rights Council, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry to investigate all alleged violations of international human rights law in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/44 (12 January 2012), at paras. 26-29.

  561. 561.

    See Human Rights Council, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry to investigate all alleged violations of international human rights law in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/44 (12 January 2012), at paras. 27-28.

  562. 562.

    Ibid ., at para. 28.

  563. 563.

    Quoted ibid ., at para. 29.

  564. 564.

    Ibid ., at paras. 46-47.

  565. 565.

    Ibid ., at para. 28.

  566. 566.

    See UN Security Council, Press Statement on Libya, UN Doc. SC/10180 – AFR/2120 (22 February 2011); Libya, Statement before the Security Council, 6490th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PV.6490 (25 February 2011) 3 at 4.

  567. 567.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1970 (2011), UN SCOR, 6491st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1970 (26 February 2011) at paras. 4, 9-21.

  568. 568.

    See International Criminal Court, Decision on the “Prosecutor’s Application Pursuant to Article 58 as to Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi”, Case The Prosecutor v. Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi: Situation in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, ICC-01/11-01/11-1 (27 June 2011) at para. 3.

  569. 569.

    Ibid ., at para. 4.

  570. 570.

    See International Criminal Court, Warrant of Arrest for Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, Case The Prosecutor v. Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi: Situation in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, ICC-01/11-01/11-2 (27 June 2011); International Criminal Court, Warrant of Arrest for Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi, Case The Prosecutor v. Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi: Situation in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, ICC-01/11-01/11-3 (27 June 2011); International Criminal Court, Warrant of Arrest for Abdullah Al-Senussi, Case The Prosecutor v. Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi: Situation in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, ICC-01/11-01/11-4 (27 June 2011).

  571. 571.

    See Human Rights Council, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry to investigate all alleged violations of international human rights law in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/44 (12 January 2012), at paras. 26, 30.

  572. 572.

    Ibid ., at para. 30.

  573. 573.

    Ibid ., at paras. 246-252.

  574. 574.

    Ibid ., at para. 32.

  575. 575.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1973 (2011), UN SCOR, 6498th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1973 (17 March 2011) at paras. 1, 6, 13, 17-19; the resolution was supported by Bosnia and Herzegovina, Colombia, France, Gabon, Lebanon, Nigeria, Portugal, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States, whereas Brazil, China, Germany, India and the Russian Federation abstained, see UN Doc. S/PV.6498 at 3.

  576. 576.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1973 (2011), UN SCOR, 6498th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1973 (17 March 2011) at para. 4.

  577. 577.

    Ibid ., at para. 8.

  578. 578.

    See United Nations, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry to investigate all alleged violations of international human rights law in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/44 (12 January 2012) at para. 32.

  579. 579.

    Ibid ., at paras. 32, 49; according to NATO information, the coalition consisted at this time of the following states: Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, France, Greece, Italy, Jordan, the Netherlands, Norway, Qatar, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States, ibid . at para. 49.

  580. 580.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2009 (2011), UN SCOR, 6620th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2009 (2011) (16 September 2011) at paras. 12-16.

  581. 581.

    See International Crisis Group, Holding Libya together: security challenges after Qadhafi, Middle East/North Africa report N° 115 (14 December 2011), online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/North%20Africa/115%20Holding%20Libya%20Together%20--%20Security%20Challenges%20after%20Qadhafi.pdf> at 6.

  582. 582.

    Ibid .

  583. 583.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2016 (2011), UN SCOR, 6640th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2016 (2011) (27 October 2011) at paras. 5-6.

  584. 584.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1 (23 November 2011) at para. 14.

  585. 585.

    Cf. ibid ., at para. 27; United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/18/53 (15 September 2011) at para. 26.

  586. 586.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1 (23 November 2011) at para. 27; United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/18/53 (15 September 2011) at para. 26.

  587. 587.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1 (23 November 2011) at para. 27; United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/18/53 (15 September 2011) at para. 34.

  588. 588.

    See United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/18/53 (15 September 2011) at para. 34.

  589. 589.

    Cf. the detailed account of events in different governorates in the Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/18/53 (15 September 2011) at paras. 34-63.

  590. 590.

    See United Nations, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/18/53 (15 September 2011) at para. 36.

  591. 591.

    Ibid .

  592. 592.

    Cf. ibid ., at paras. 37-63; United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1 (23 November 2011) at para. 28.

  593. 593.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1 (23 November 2011) at para. 29.

  594. 594.

    Ibid .

  595. 595.

    See International Crisis Group, Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VII): The Syrian Regime’s Slow-Motion Suicide, Crisis Group Middle East/North Africa Report N° 109 (13 July 2011), online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/109%20Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20Middle%20East%20VII%20--%20The%20Syrian%20Regimes%20Slow-motion%20Suicide.pdf> at 27.

  596. 596.

    Ibid ., at 28.

  597. 597.

    See Human Rights Watch, Syria: Arab States Should Push for End to Killings. Egypt and Tunisia Should Lead in Sanctioning Damascus, April 27 2011, online: Human Rights Watch <http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/04/27/syria-arab-states-should-push-end-killings>; cf. also International Crisis Group, Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VII): The Syrian Regime’s Slow-Motion Suicide, Crisis Group Middle East/North Africa Report N° 109 (13 July 2011), online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/109%20Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20Middle%20East%20VII%20--%20The%20Syrian%20Regimes%20Slow-motion%20Suicide.pdf> at 28 (referring to the “meek statement” of the Arab League).

  598. 598.

    6520th Mtg., UN Docs. S/PV.6520 and S/PV.6520 (Resumption 1) (21 April 2011).

  599. 599.

    6524th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PV.6524 (27 April 2011). On the response of the Security Council throughout the first year of the deepening crisis in Syria, see generally Saira Mohamed, “The U.N. Security Council and the Crisis in Syria” (2012) 16:11 ASIL Insights (26 March 2012), online: American Society of International Law <http://www.asil.org/insights/volume/16/issue/11/un-security-council-and-crisis-syria>.

  600. 600.

    See United States, Statement in the Security Council, 6520th Mtg., 21 April 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6520, 12 at 13 (expressing deep concern over the continuing violence and arrests in the country); United Kingdom, Statement in the Security Council, 6520th Mtg., 21 April 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6520, 15 at 15 (condemning the violence against and the killing of peaceful protesters by security forces in both Yemen and Syria); France, Statement in the Security Council, 6520th Mtg., 21 April 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6520, 20 at 21 (expressing concern and demanding that the Syrian authorities renounce the use of force against demonstrators, release all political prisoners and respect the rights to peacefully demonstrate); Germany, Statement in the Security Council, 6520th Mtg., 21 April 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6520, 22 at 23 (expressing serious concern over the deteriorating situation, condemning the use of force by security forces and calling upon the government to urgently implement political reforms).

  601. 601.

    See Russian Federation, Statement in the Security Council, 6520th Mtg., 21 April 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6520, 26 at 27; see also Russian Federation, Statement in the Security Council, 6524th Mtg., 26 April 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6524, 7 at 7 (warning that external interference could endanger regional security and suggesting that some demonstrators in Syria and abroad were in fact hoping that the deteriorating situation could prompt such international intervention).

  602. 602.

    See Saira Mohamed, “The U.N. Security Council and the Crisis in Syria” (2012) 16:11 ASIL Insights (26 March 2012), online: American Society of International Law <http://www.asil.org/insights/volume/16/issue/11/un-security-council-and-crisis-syria>.

  603. 603.

    See International Crisis Group, Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VII): The Syrian Regime’s Slow-Motion Suicide, Crisis Group Middle East/North Africa Report N° 109 (13 July 2011), online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/109%20Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20Middle%20East%20VII%20--%20The%20Syrian%20Regimes%20Slow-motion%20Suicide.pdf> at 30, n. 291 (quoting from a copy of the draft resolution).

  604. 604.

    Ibid ., at 30 and n. 294.

  605. 605.

    See United Nations, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6598th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2011/16 (3 August 2011) at paras. 1-4.

  606. 606.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1 (23 November 2011) at para. 36.

  607. 607.

    See International Crisis Group, Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VII): The Syrian Regime’s Slow-Motion Suicide, Crisis Group Middle East/North Africa Report N° 109(13 July 2011), online: International Crisis Group <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/109%20Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20Middle%20East%20VII%20--%20The%20Syrian%20Regimes%20Slow-motion%20Suicide.pdf> at 27 and fn. 262.

  608. 608.

    Ibid ., at 27-29.

  609. 609.

    See UN Human Rights Council, Resolution S-16/1, The current human rights situation in the Syrian Arab Republic in the context of recent events, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/S-16/1 (4 May 2011) at op. paras. 1 and 7.

  610. 610.

    See UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, S-17/1 (23 August 2011), reproduced in UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Human Rights Council on its seventeenth special session, UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2 (18 October 2011) 3 at op. para. 13

  611. 611.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1 (23 November 2011); United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/69 (22 February 2012); United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/21/50 (16 August 2012).

  612. 612.

    See France, Germany, Portugal and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: draft resolution, 4 October 2011, UN Doc. S/2011/612, at op. para 11.

  613. 613.

    See the statement made by the United Kingdom after the vote, 6627nd Mtg., 4 October 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6627,7 at 7: cf. also Saira Mohamed, “The U.N. Security Council and the Crisis in Syria” (2012) 16:11 ASIL Insights (26 March 2012), online: American Society of International Law <http://www.asil.org/insights/volume/16/issue/11/un-security-council-and-crisis-syria>.

  614. 614.

    See UN Security Council, 6627nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/PV.6627 (4 October 2011) at 2 (with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Colombia, France, Gabon, Germany, Nigeria, Portugal, the UK and the US voting in favour and Brazil, India, Lebanon and South Africa abstaining).

  615. 615.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>.

  616. 616.

    See Qatar, Statement in the Security Council, 6710th Mtg., 31 January 2012, UN Doc. S/PV.6710, 2 at 2.

  617. 617.

    See Bahrain, Colombia, Egypt, France, Germany, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Portugal, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and United States of America: draft resolution, UN Doc. S/2012/77 (4 February 2012) at op. para. 7.

  618. 618.

    Cf. Bahrain, Colombia, Egypt, France, Germany, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Portugal, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and United States of America: draft resolution, UN Doc. S/2012/77 (4 February 2012) as well as the earlier proposed draft of the resolution that had been circulated amongst diplomats in New York the previous week, Draft of Security Council Resolution on Syria, New York Times, 31 January 2012, online: New York Times <http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/01/world/middleeast/draft-of-security-council-resolution-on-syria.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0>.

  619. 619.

    See UN Security Council, 6711th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PV.6711 (4 February 2012) at 2.

  620. 620.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/S-17/2/Add.1 (23 November 2011) at para. 38; on the sanctions, which came into force on 16 November 2011, see also United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/69 (22 February 2012) at para. 29.

  621. 621.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/69 (22 February 2012) at para. 29.

  622. 622.

    See UN General Assembly, Situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 66/176, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., 89th Plen. Mtg. (19 December 2011) at op. paras. 1-3 (adopted with 133 votes in favour and 43 abstentions, including from China and the Russian Federation, and against the votes of Belarus, Cuba, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Ecuador, Iran, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Syria, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Zimbabwe, see UN General Assembly, General Assembly adopts more than 60 resolutions recommended by Third Committee, including text condemning grave, systematic human rights violations in Syria, UN Doc. GA/11198, 19 December 2011, Annex XV).

  623. 623.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 66/253, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., 97th Plen. Mtg. (16 February 2012) at op. para. 7; cf. also Saira Mohamed, “The U.N. Security Council and the Crisis in Syria” (2012) 16:11 ASIL Insights (26 March 2012), online: American Society of International Law <http://www.asil.org/insights/volume/16/issue/11/un-security-council-and-crisis-syria> (noting that the resolution was “nearly identical to the one the Security Council rejected”).

  624. 624.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 66/253, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., 97th Plen. Mtg. (16 February 2012) at op. para. 11.

  625. 625.

    See UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Kofi Annan appointed Joint Special Envoy of United Nations, League of Arab State on Syrian crisis, UN Doc. SG/SM/14124, 23 February 2012.

  626. 626.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>.

  627. 627.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2042 (2012), UN SCOR, 6751st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2042 (14 April 2012), Annex: Six-Point Proposal of the Joint Special Envoy of the United Nations and the League of Arab States.

  628. 628.

    Cf. Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6746th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2012/10 (5 April 2012) at paras. 3-4.

  629. 629.

    See Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6736th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2012/6 (21 March 2012) at para. 6.

  630. 630.

    See Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6746th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2012/10 (5 April 2012) at para. 4.

  631. 631.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/21/50 (16 August 2012) at para. 17.

  632. 632.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2042 (2012), UN SCOR, 6751st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2042 (2012) (14 April 2012) at op. para. 7.

  633. 633.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2043 (2012), UN SCOR, 6756th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2043 (2012) (21 April 2012) at op. paras. 5-6.

  634. 634.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/21/50 (16 August 2012) at para. 17

  635. 635.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2059 (2012), UN SCOR, 6812th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2059 (2012) (20 July 2012) at op. paras. 1, 3.

  636. 636.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>.

  637. 637.

    See Final communiqué of the Action Group for Syria, UN Doc. A/66/865-S/2012/522 (30 June 2012) 2 at para. 1. The other members of the Action Group were the Secretaries-General of both the UN and the Arab League, the EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Turkey, Iraq, as Chair of the Summit of the Arab League, Kuwait, as Chair of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the Arab League, and Qatar, as Chair of the Arab Follow-up Committee on Syria of the Arab League.

  638. 638.

    See Final communiqué of the Action Group for Syria, UN Doc. A/66/865-S/2012/522 (30 June 2012) 2.

  639. 639.

    See Final communiqué of the Action Group for Syria, UN Doc. A/66/865-S/2012/522 (30 June 2012) 2 at para. 12 (a) and (e).

  640. 640.

    France, Germany, Portugal, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and United States of America: draft resolution, 19 July 2012, UN Doc. S/2012/538.

  641. 641.

    See UN Security Council, 6810th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PV.6810 (19 July 2012) at 2.

  642. 642.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 66/253 B, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., 124th Plen. Mtg. (3 August 2012) at preambular para. 16.

  643. 643.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>.

  644. 644.

    Ibid .

  645. 645.

    See Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6841st Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2012/20 (26 September 2012) at paras. 6, 8. See also UN Security Council, Security Council Press Statement on Damascus Bombing, UN Doc. SC/10953 (22 March 2013), expressing support for Brahimi’s initiative for a ceasefire during the period of Eid al-Adha.

  646. 646.

    See UN Security Council, Security Council Press Statement on Terrorist Attacks in Aleppo, UN Doc. SC/10784 (5 October 2012).

  647. 647.

    See UN Security Council, Security Council Press Statement on Shelling of Turkish Town by Syrian Forces, UN Doc. SC/10783 (4 October 2012).

  648. 648.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>, sections on February and July 2013.

  649. 649.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>.

  650. 650.

    Ibid .

  651. 651.

    See Letter dated 14 January 2013 from the Chargé d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Switzerland to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/67/694-S/2013/19 (14 January 2013).

  652. 652.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 67/262, UN GAOR, 67th Sess., 80th Plen. Mtg. (15 May 2013) at op. paras. 8-9.

  653. 653.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>.

  654. 654.

    See UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Letter dated 22 March 2013 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/2013/184 (22 March 2013) at paras. 1-3.

  655. 655.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>.

  656. 656.

    Ibid .

  657. 657.

    Ibid ., section on September 2013.

  658. 658.

    See Letter dated 19 September 2013 from the Permanent Representatives of the Russian Federation and the United States of America to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/68/398-S/2013/565 (19 September 2013), Annex.

  659. 659.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>.

  660. 660.

    Ibid .

  661. 661.

    See UN Security Council, 7038th Mtg., UN Docs. S/PV.7038 (27 September 2013) at 2.

  662. 662.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2118 (2013), UN SCOR, 7038th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2118 (2013) (27 September 2013) at op. para. 3.

  663. 663.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2118 (2013), UN SCOR, 7038th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2118 (2013) (27 September 2013) at op. paras. 16-17.

  664. 664.

    See UN Security Council, Letter dated 11 October 2013 from the President of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/2013/603 (11 October 2013) in conjunction with S/2013/591 at 5-6.

  665. 665.

    Cf. UN Security Council, Resolution 2139 (2014), UN SCOR, 7116th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2139 (2014) (22 February 2014) at op. para. 15 (welcoming the launching of the conference).

  666. 666.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2139 (2014), UN SCOR, 7116th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2139 (2014) (22 February 2014), in particular at preambular para. 4 and op. para. 5.

  667. 667.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 7039th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2013/15 (2 October 2013) at para. 12.

  668. 668.

    See Security Council Report, Chronology of Events: Syria, online: Security Council Report <http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/chronology/syria.php?page=all&print=true>, section on November 2013.

  669. 669.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2139 (2014), UN SCOR, 7116th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2139 (2014) (22 February 2014) at preambular para. 10, op. paras. 5-6.

  670. 670.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2139 (2014), UN SCOR, 7116th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2139 (2014) (22 February 2014) at op. para. 9.

  671. 671.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1960 (2010), UN SCOR, 6453rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1960 (2010) (16 December 2010) at op. para. 7.

  672. 672.

    Cf. United Nations, Report of the independent expert appointed by the Secretary-General on the situation of human rights in Somalia (Mr Ghanim Alnajjar), UN Doc. A/HRC/7/26 (17 March 2008) at para. 7.

  673. 673.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Somalia, Shamsul Bari, UN Doc. A/HRC/12/44 (17 September 2009) at para. 5.

  674. 674.

    Cf. e.g. on AMISOM United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Somalia, UN Doc. S/2008/352 (30 May 2008) at para. 6 (predicting for May 2008 a troop level of only 3,000 of the envisaged total of 8,000 forces).

  675. 675.

    Cf. Susan C. Breau, Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations and Collective Responsibility (London: Cameron May, 2005) at 215, quoting Amnesty International.

  676. 676.

    Cf. the outline of the debates in the Security Council by Alex J. Bellamy and Paul D. Williams, “The UN Security Council and the Question of Humanitarian Intervention in Darfur” (2006) 5:2 Journal of Military Ethics 144 at 149-157.

  677. 677.

    See e.g. Nigel D. White, “Decision-making” in Jan Klabbers & Åsa Wallendahl, eds., Research Handbook on the Law of International Organizations (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2011) at 245.

  678. 678.

    See Alex J. Bellamy and Paul D. Williams, “The UN Security Council and the Question of Humanitarian Intervention in Darfur” (2006) 5:2 Journal of Military Ethics 144 at 151-153, 156.

  679. 679.

    See Saira Mohamed, “The U.N. Security Council and the Crisis in Syria” (2012) 16:11 ASIL Insights (26 March 2012), online: American Society of International Law <http://www.asil.org/insights/volume/16/issue/11/un-security-council-and-crisis-syria>.

  680. 680.

    See only United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/69 (22 February 2012) at para. 28 (on the increasing diplomatic pressure and hardening sanctions by the EU, US and Turkey).

  681. 681.

    See Russian Federation, Statement in the Security Council, 6627nd Mtg., 4 October 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6627, 3 at 4; South Africa, Statement in the Security Council, 6627nd Mtg., 4 October 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6627, 10 at 11.

  682. 682.

    See United Nations, Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/HRC/19/69 (22 February 2012) at para. 33.

  683. 683.

    See United Kingdom, Statement in the Security Council, 6627nd Mtg., 4 October 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6627, 7 at 7; cf. also United States, Statement in the Security Council, 6627nd Mtg., 4 October 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6627, 8 at 8 (stressing that “this is not about military intervention”).

  684. 684.

    See Russian Federation, Statement in the Security Council, 6711th Mtg., 4 February 2012, UN Doc. S/PV.6711, 9 at 9.

  685. 685.

    See China, Statement in the Security Council, 6627nd Mtg., 4 October 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6627, 5 at 5.

  686. 686.

    See e.g. the US, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 3987th Mtg., 19 March 1999, UN Doc. S/PV.3987, 13 at 14 (expressing deep concern at the “danger of renewed genocide in the region”); Slovenia, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 3987th Mtg., 19 March 1999, UN Doc. S/PV.3987, 15 at 16-17 (demanding that “[t]he spread of the practice of genocide in the region must not be tolerated”); Canada, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 4237th Mtg., 28 November 2000, UN Doc. S/PV.4237, 7 at 8 (condemning “all violations of human rights and humanitarian law committed in both Government and rebel-controlled areas” and calling for those “responsible for violations, including serious crimes such as crimes of genocide” to be brought to justice); Bangladesh, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 4395th Mtg., 24 October 2001, UN Doc. S/PV.4395, 23 at 23 (expressing outrage at learning “once again about crimes of genocide and crimes against humanity committed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo”); Burkina Faso, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 6024th Mtg., 26 November 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.6024, 6 at 7 (demanding that the Security Council take measures against those responsible for atrocities including genocide). The government of the DRC itself spoke repeatedly of a genocide, see DRC, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in the Great Lakes region, 4323rd Mtg., 30 May 2001, UN Doc. S/PV.4323, 10 at 11 (demanding that “[t]hose responsible for the genocide of Congolese people must be prosecuted and punished”) and DRC, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 4705th Mtg., 13 February 2003, UN Doc. S/PV.4705, 16 at 17 (noting that the events in Ituri in early 2003 had “attained such a degree of gravity that certain authoritative voices did not hesitate to describe them as genocidal”). In several cases, the label genocide was also used by other states of the Great Lakes region that were themselves involved in the conflict in the DRC, see e.g. Rwanda, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 3987th Mtg., 19 March 1999, UN Doc. S/PV.3987 (Resumption 1) 4 at 5 (speaking of an “apparent embracing of a genocidal ideology by the Democratic Republic of the Congo leadership”, which it moreover blamed for accepting the presence on its territory of the forces responsible for the Rwandan genocide and for continued “genocidal attacks on Rwanda”) and Burundi, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 3987th Mtg., 19 March 1999, UN Doc. S/PV.3987 (Resumption 1), 19 at 19 (warning that “[t]he ideology of extermination and genocide, which in Rwanda led to the greatest genocide of the late twentieth century, is, unfortunately, still spreading throughout the region”); Rwanda, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 6055th Mtg., 22 December 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.6055, 16 at 16 (asserting that the perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide had been transferred to the DRC, with their arms and munitions, and “have continued their genocidal project on the other side of the border”); Rwanda, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 4092nd Mtg., 24 January 2000, UN Doc. S/PV.4092, 21 at 22 (justifying the two wars that it had fought in Zaire/DRC as attempts to prevent its people from another genocide); Uganda, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 4092nd Mtg., 24 January 2000, UN Doc. S/PV.4092, 19 at 20 (arguing that it had fought the Zairian Mobutu regime in 1996 to prevent another genocide in Rwanda).

  687. 687.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, 3953rd Mtg., 11 December 1998, UN Doc. S/PRST/1998/36 (11 December 1998) at para. 7; UN Security Council, Resolution 1234 (1999), UN SCOR, 3993rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1234 (9 April 1999) at op. para. 6; UN Security Council, Resolution 1291 (2000), UN SCOR, 4104th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1291 (24 February 2000) at op. para. 15.

  688. 688.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Resolution 1234 (1999), UN SCOR, 3993rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1234 (9 April 1999) at op. para. 6 (“Calls upon all parties to the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo to protect human rights and to respect international humanitarian law, in particular, as applicable to them, the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Additional Protocols of 1977, and the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948"); UN Security Council, Resolution 1291 (2000), UN SCOR, 4104th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1291 (24 February 2000) at op. para. 15 (“Calls on all parties to the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo to protect human rights and respect international humanitarian law and the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948, and calls on all parties to refrain from or cease any support to, or association with, those suspected of involvement in the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity or war crimes, and to bring to justice those responsible, and facilitate measures in accordance with international law to ensure accountability for violations of international humanitarian law”); UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, 3953rd Mtg., 11 December 1998, UN Doc. S/PRST/1998/36 (11 December 1998) at para. 7 (“The Security Council condemns any violations of human rights and humanitarian law, including acts of and incitement to ethnic hatred and violence by all parties. It urges all parties to respect and protect human rights and respect humanitarian law, in particular the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Additional Protocols of 1977, as applicable to them, and the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948").

  689. 689.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1291 (2000), UN SCOR, 4104th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1291 (24 February 2000) at op. para. 15. The importance that is attributed to the punishment of genocidaires in particular is also reflected in the presidential statement of 30 January 2008, in which the Security Council commends the amnesty law for Kivu for excluding genocide, war crimes or crimes against humanity from its scope, see UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 5828th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2008/2 (30 January 2008) at para. 3. Cf. also European Union, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 4790th Mtg., 18 July 2003, UN Doc. S/PV.4790, 6 at 7 (announcing its intention “to promote initiatives aimed at preventing those responsible for war crimes, crimes against humanity and acts of genocide committed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo from enjoying impunity”).

  690. 690.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1564 (2004), UN SCOR, 5040th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1564 (2004) (18 September 2004) at op. para. 12.

  691. 691.

    See United Nations, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General, 25 January 2005, online: United Nation <http://www.un.org/news/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf> at 4.

  692. 692.

    Ibid .

  693. 693.

    See only United States, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5015th Mtg., 30 July 2004, UN Doc. S/PV.5015, 3 at 4 (noting that the US Congress had passed resolutions in the previous week which had labelled the atrocities in Darfur as genocide); United States, Statement in the Security Council on the report of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5040th Mtg., 18 September 2004, UN Doc. S/PV.5040, 5 at 6 (noting that Secretary of State Powell had recently informed the US Congress that the available evidence of violence in Sudan had led the US “to conclude that the Government of the Sudan may be condoning and perpetrating genocide”); United States, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5158th Mtg., 31 March 2005, UN Doc. S/PV.5158, 2 at 3 and United States, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5434th Mtg., 9 May 2006, UN Doc. S/PV.5434, 5 at 5 (recalling on both occasions that the US had reached the conclusion that genocide had been committed in Darfur).

  694. 694.

    See only Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5459th Mtg., 14 June 2006, UN Doc. S/PV.5459, 2 at 4 (briefing the Security Council on allegations that had been made according to which “some of the groups involved in the commission of crimes in Darfur did so with specific genocidal intent” while reserving his own conclusions until the completion of the investigations); Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6028th Mtg., 3 December 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.6028, 2 at 2 (briefing the Security Council that he had requested an arrest warrant against the Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir inter alia on charges of genocide); Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6440th Mtg., 9 December 2010, UN Doc. S/PV.6440, 2 at 2 (unambiguously stating that “[t]he situation in Darfur is a genocide — an ongoing genocide.”); Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6548th Mtg., 8 June 2011, UN Doc. S/PV.6548, 2 at 2 (reiterating that “crimes against humanity and genocide continue unabated in Darfur”).

  695. 695.

    See Panama, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5905th Mtg., 5 June 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.5905, 9 at 10 (“If that is not genocide, I do not know what else to call it.”); Costa Rica, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6230th Mtg., 4 December 2009, UN Doc. S/PV.6230, 12 at 12 (reminding the international community that a referral of the situation to the ICC did not exonerate it “from its obligation to demand accountability for the genocide in Darfur”). More often, genocide was only mentioned alongside other crimes, namely war crimes and crimes against humanity, especially in statements referring to the jurisdiction of the ICC, see e.g. Belgium, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5789th Mtg., 5 December 2007, UN Doc. S/PV.5789, 9 at 9 (thanking Prosecutor Moreno-Ocampo for his briefing and reiterating the importance which it attributed to the ICC in combating impunity and suppressing genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes); Costa Rica, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5832nd Mtg., 8 February 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.5832, 12 at 13 (submitting that “[p]erpetrators of war crimes, crimes against humanity or the crime of genocide are attacking human dignity and the conscience of the international community, and should therefore be answerable to justice without delay”, and reiterating its commitment to the ICC); United Republic of Tanzania, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5158th Mtg., 31 March 2005, UN Doc. S/PV.5158, 9 at 9 (referring to the ICC, “a Court established to bring to justice those accused of genocide and other serious crimes against humanity” as “the most appropriate international organ for dealing with the situation in Darfur”); cf. also Ghana, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5519th Mtg., 31 August 2006, UN Doc. S/PV.5519, 10 at 10 (explaining its vote in favour of Resolution 1706 (2006) as reaffirming the principle enshrined in article 4(h) of the Constitutive Act of the African Union, providing for a right of the AU to intervene in its member states in respect of war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity).

  696. 696.

    See e.g. Viet Nam, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6096th Mtg., 20 March 2009, UN Doc. S/PV.6096, 12 at 12 (reiterating its commitment to ending impunity for “those committing crimes, especially the most serious crimes such as the crime of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity”, while calling for “a balance between promoting the political process and waging the fight against impunity”); United States, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6338th Mtg., 14 June 2010, UN Doc. S/PV.6338, 11 at 12 (expressing strong support for the “international efforts to bring those responsible for genocide and war crimes in Darfur to justice”); United States, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6425th Mtg., 16 November 2010, UN Doc. S/PV.6425, 15 at 17 (Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton reaffirming President Obama’s position that “accountability sends a powerful message that certain behaviour, including genocide, is not acceptable”); Costa Rica, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6230th Mtg., 4 December 2009, UN Doc. S/PV.6230, 12 at 12 (reaffirming that “[r]eferring the situation in Darfur to the International Criminal Court does not in itself exonerate the international community from its obligation to demand accountability for the genocide in Darfur”). For a stronger focus on prevention see however Costa Rica, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5905th Mtg., 5 June 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.5905, 5 at 7 (quoting the findings by the independent inquiry into the United Nations action in Rwanda according to which the failure of UNAMIR was due to “a lack of resources and a lack of political will to take the commitment which would have been necessary to prevent or to stop the genocide” and that “[t]he Security Council bears a responsibility for its lack of political will to do more to stop the killing”, while warning that the Security Council still had to muster the political will “to face up to the responsibilities that the tragedy in Darfur calls for”).

  697. 697.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1564 (2004), UN SCOR, 5040th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1564 (2004) (18 September 2004) at op. para. 12.

  698. 698.

    See e.g. already Algeria, Statement in the Security Council on the report of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5040th Mtg., 18 September 2004, UN Doc. S/PV.5040, 2 at 3 (criticizing the sponsors of the draft resolution that was subsequently adopted as Resolution 1564 on the establishment of the international inquiry to investigate human rights violations in Darfur, with Algeria abstaining, for having raised the question of whether or not genocide had been committed, which it thought had so far been “wisely set aside, at least for the time being […] so as not to disrupt or jeopardize the delivery of humanitarian assistance and the ongoing African Union efforts aimed at reaching a political settlement”); Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6028th Mtg., 3 December 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.6028, 5 at 6 (referring to the request for an arrest warrant by the ICC against Sudanese President Omar Al-Bashir on accusations of crimes of genocide, and suggesting that “[e]xperience and a concern for justice have taught us that strong words – and here I am referring to resolution 1593 (2005) – are not conducive to finding solutions or to creating an environment of cooperation and assistance with the Government of Sudan”, but “[t]o the contrary, strong words endanger the growing cooperation between the Government of the Sudan and the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur”).

  699. 699.

    See especially China, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5947th Mtg., 31 July 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.5947, 5 at 6 (calling the indictment proposed by the Prosecutor of the ICC “an inappropriate decision taken at an inappropriate time” that “will seriously undermine the atmosphere of mutual political trust and cooperation between the United Nations and the Sudanese Government, fuel the arrogance of the rebel groups not willing in the political process and harm the fragile and turbulent security situation in Darfur[, …] derail the process of resolving the Darfur issue, and even render useless all efforts made so far by all parties for the proper settlement of the issue” and therefore expressing its support for “the reasonable request by the African Union and other organizations for the Council to take early action to suspend the indictment of the Sudanese leader by the ICC, in accordance with the relevant provisions”); see also Russian Federation, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5947th Mtg., 31 July 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.5947, 3 at 3-4 (demanding that the search for justice be done “without neglecting other equally important factors that could have an impact on the stability of an important region of Africa” and expressing its “hope that the Security Council will continue its search for the best balance between peace and justice in Darfur”); Viet Nam, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5947th Mtg., 31 July 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.5947, 11 at 11 (subscribing to “the concerns of the African Union, the League of Arab States and the Non-Aligned Movement, as well as those of many United Nations Member States and Council members, about the possible negative impact of a potential indictment requested by the International Criminal Court Prosecutor against the President of the Sudan on the peace process in that country and on the very operation of UNAMID”); cf. also e.g. UN Assistant Secretary-General Edmond Mulet, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 6010th Mtg., 5 November 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.6010, 2 at 3-4 (noting that the request by the Prosecutor of the ICC for an arrest warrant against the Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir “could have serious security and other implications for both UNMIS and the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur and could potentially derail the CPA process”); UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General for the Sudan and head of the United Nations Mission in the Sudan Ashraf Jehangir Qazi, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5956th Mtg., 18 August 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.5956, 2 at 5 (reporting on his communication with the Government of Sudan, in which he had reiterated that the ICC and UNMIS were separate and independent institutions while the Sudanese government, despite acknowledging this distinction, had warned that “the issuance of an arrest warrant against President Al-Bashir could create a situation that might have serious consequences for United Nations staff and infrastructure in the Sudan”).

  700. 700.

    See e.g. Rwanda, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 6055th Mtg., 22 December 2008, UN Doc. S/PV.6055, 12 at 14 (requesting the Security Council “to give MONUC a robust mandate to effectively disarm the ex-FAR/Interahamwe/FDLR, since that genocidal force remains the epicentre of the security problems in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the region in general”).

  701. 701.

    Cf. William A. Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crime of crimes, 1st ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000) at 499.

  702. 702.

    See United States, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5015th Mtg., 30 July 2004, UN Doc. S/PV.5015, 3 at 4 (recalling that the US Congress had in the preceding week labelled the atrocities in Darfur as genocide and acknowledging that many people would, perhaps rightly, like the Security Council to follow suit, but stressing that “it is important that we not become bogged down over words” but rather “that the Security Council act quickly, decisively and with unity”); see also the Philippines, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5015th Mtg., 30 July 2004, UN Doc. S/PV.5015, 10 at 10 (“Whether what is happening there is genocide or ethnic cleansing should not be the priority question at the moment. The fact is, people are dying, and women are being raped and homes and property destroyed. The collective conscience of the international community must arrest that catastrophe.”).

  703. 703.

    Cf. United States, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 4104th Mtg., 24 February 2000, UN Doc. S/PV.4104, 11 at 12 (suggesting that “all States must increase their efforts to uphold and enforce international law against genocide”).

  704. 704.

    See e.g. Zimbabwe, Statement in the Security Council on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 4143rd Mtg., 17 March 2000, UN Doc. S/PV.4143 (Resumption 1), 9 at 10 (linking Article 24 of the UN Charter and the primary responsibility of the Security Council for the maintenance of peace and security to the experience of the two world wars and the ambition of the international community not to descend again “to that depth of human loss, genocide and holocaust”).

  705. 705.

    See Denmark, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5520th Mtg., 11 September 2006, UN Doc. S/PV.5520, 20 at 20. Cf. also Singapore, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in the Great Lakes region, 5359th Mtg., 27 January 2006, UN Doc. S/PV.5359, 2121 at 22 (recalling “the tragic experiences of Rwanda and Srebrenica” as reminders that “it is morally unacceptable for the United Nations to remain inactive in the face of massive human rights violations”, noting further that MONUC “by its very presence […] will be expected to provide protection for civilian populations”, and affirming that, if MONUC alerts the Security Council to “any serious threat to the security of civilians […] the Council will be obliged to consider and devise an appropriate response”).

  706. 706.

    Cf. Part 6.3.10.3.2 below.

  707. 707.

    See e.g. the reference by Tanzania to the Rwandan genocide and to the need to never again allow a similar catastrophe, see Tanzania, Statement in the Security Council on the situation in the Great Lakes region, 5359th Mtg., 27 January 2006, UN Doc. S/PV.5359, 2 at 3.

  708. 708.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 4978th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2004/18 (25 May 2004) at para. 2 (on southern Sudan); UN Security Council, Resolution 1911 (2010), UN SCOR, 6267th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1911 (28 January 2010) at preambular para. 10 (on Côte d’Ivoire).

  709. 709.

    See only UN Security Council, Resolution 1547 (2004), UN SCOR, 4988th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1547 (2004) (11 June 2004) at preambular para. 6 (on southern Sudan); UN Security Council, Resolution 1556 (2004), UN SCOR, 5015th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1556 (2004) (30 July 2004) at preambular para. 8 (on Darfur); UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 7039th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2013/15 (2 October 2013) at para. 5 (on Syria).

  710. 710.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Resolution 1556 (2004), UN SCOR, 5015th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1556 (2004) (30 July 2004) at preambular paras. 9-10; UN Security Council, Resolution 1564 (2004), UN SCOR, 5040th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1564 (2004) (18 September 2004) at preambular para. 10; UN Security Council, Resolution 1574 (2004), UN SCOR, 5082nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1574 (2004) (19 November 2004) at preambular para. 11.

  711. 711.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Resolution 1556 (2004), UN SCOR, 5015th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1556 (2004) (30 July 2004) at preambular para. 9; UN Security Council, Resolution 1564 (2004), UN SCOR, 5040th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1564 (2004) (18 September 2004) at preambular para. 10; UN Security Council, Resolution 1574 (2004), UN SCOR, 5082nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1574 (2004) (19 November 2004) at preambular para. 11.

  712. 712.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1556 (2004), UN SCOR, 5015th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1556 (2004) (30 July 2004) at preambular para. 10.

  713. 713.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1574 (2004), UN SCOR, 5082nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1574 (2004) (19 November 2004) at op. para. 11.

  714. 714.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Resolution 1556 (2004), UN SCOR, 5015th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1556 (2004) (30 July 2004) at preambular para. 10; UN Security Council, Resolution 1574 (2004), UN SCOR, 5082nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1574 (2004) (19 November 2004) at preambular para. 10.

  715. 715.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Resolution 1564 (2004), UN SCOR, 5040th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1564 (2004) (18 September 2004) at op. para. 7; UN Security Council, Resolution 1590 (2005), UN SCOR, 5151st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1590 (2005) (24 March 2005) at preambular para. 7.

  716. 716.

    See on this also Part 6.3.10.3 and especially notes 733, 736-737 below.

  717. 717.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 67/262, UN GAOR, 67th Sess., 80th Plen. Mtg. (15 May 2013) at op. paras. 2 and 8.

  718. 718.

    See Letter dated 14 January 2013 from the Chargé d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Switzerland to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/67/694-S/2013/19 (14 January 2013) at paras. 5-6.

  719. 719.

    See Letter dated 14 January 2013 from the Chargé d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent Mission of Switzerland to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/67/694-S/2013/19 (14 January 2013) at para. 6.

  720. 720.

    See UN General Assembly Third Committee, Situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/C.3/68/L.42/Rev.1 (19 November 2013) at op. para. 10.

  721. 721.

    Ibid ., at op. para. 12.

  722. 722.

    See only UN Security Council, Resolution 1547 (2004), UN SCOR, 4988th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1547 (2004) (11 June 2004) at preambular para. 4; UN Security Council, Resolution 1556 (2004), UN SCOR, 5015th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1556 (2004) (30 July 2004) at preambular para. 4; UN Security Council, Resolution 1564 (2004), UN SCOR, 5040th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1564 (2004) (18 September 2004) at preambular para. 5; UN Security Council, Resolution 1574 (2004), UN SCOR, 5082nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1574 (2004) (19 November 2004) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1590 (2005), UN SCOR, 5151st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1590 (2005) (24 March 2005) at preambular para. 2 (on Sudan); UN Security Council, Resolution 2042 (2012), UN SCOR, 6751st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2042 (2012) (14 April 2012) at preambular para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 2043 (2012), UN SCOR, 6756th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2043 (2012) (21 April 2012) at preambular para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 2139 (2014), UN SCOR, 7116th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2139 (2014) (22 February 2014) at preambular para. 2 (on Syria). See also France, Germany, Portugal and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Draft resolution, 4 October 2011, UN Doc. S/2011/612 at preambular para. 8 (on Syria).

  723. 723.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Resolution 1574 (2004), UN SCOR, 5082nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1574 (2004) (19 November 2004) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1590 (2005), UN SCOR, 5151st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1590 (2005) (24 March 2005) at preambular para. 2 (on Sudan).

  724. 724.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Resolution 2042 (2012), UN SCOR, 6751st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2042 (2012) (14 April 2012) at preambular para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 2043 (2012), UN SCOR, 6756th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2043 (2012) (21 April 2012) at preambular para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 2139 (2014), UN SCOR, 7116th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2139 (2014) (22 February 2014) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6736th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2012/6 (21 March 2012) at para. 3; UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6746th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2012/10 (5 April 2012) at para. 2; UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6841st Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2012/20 (26 September 2012) at para. 5; UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 7039th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2013/15 (2 October 2013) at para. 2 (on Syria).

  725. 725.

    See Article 1(1) and (3) UN Charter.

  726. 726.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 6841st Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2012/20 (26 September 2012) at para. 1.

  727. 727.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 66/253 B, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., 124th Plen. Mtg. (3 August 2012) at preambular para. 16.

  728. 728.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 66/253 B, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., 124th Plen. Mtg. (3 August 2012) at op. para. 9; UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 67/262, UN GAOR, 67th Sess., 80th Plen. Mtg. (15 May 2013) at op. para. 9.

  729. 729.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 66/253 B, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., 124th Plen. Mtg. (3 August 2012) at preambular para. 5; UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 67/262, UN GAOR, 67th Sess., 80th Plen. Mtg. (15 May 2013) at op. para. 6.

  730. 730.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 66/253 B, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., 124th Plen. Mtg. (3 August 2012) at op. para. 6; UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 67/262, UN GAOR, 67th Sess., 80th Plen. Mtg. (15 May 2013) at op. para. 4.

  731. 731.

    See text accompanying note 721 above.

  732. 732.

    Cf. UN General Assembly Third Committee, Situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/C.3/68/L.42/Rev.1 (19 November 2013) at op. para. 12.

  733. 733.

    See e.g. UN Security Council, Resolution 1679 (2006), UN SCOR, 5439th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1679 (16 March 2006) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1706 (2006), UN SCOR, 5519th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1706 (2006) (31 August 2006) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1755 (2007), UN SCOR, 5670th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1755 (30 April 2007) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1769 (2007), UN SCOR, 5727th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1769 (2007) (31 July 2007) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1784 (2007), UN SCOR, 5774th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1784 (2007) (31 October 2007) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1812 (2008), UN SCOR, 5882nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1812 (2008) (30 April 2008) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1828 (2008), UN SCOR, 5947th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1828 (2008) (31 July 2008) at preambular para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 1870 (2009), UN SCOR, 6116th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1870 (2009) (30 April 2009) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1881 (2009), UN SCOR, 6175th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1881 (2009) (30 July 2009) at preambular para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 1919 (2010), UN SCOR, 6304th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1919 (2010) (29 April 2010) at preambular para. 2; UN Security Council, Resolution 1935 (2010), UN SCOR, 6366th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1935 (2010) (30 July 2010) at preambular para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 1990 (2011), UN SCOR, 6567th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1990 (2011) (27 June 2011) at preambular para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 2003 (2011), UN SCOR, 6597th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2003 (2011) (29 July 2011) at preambular para. 3; UN Security Council, Resolution 2032 (2011), UN SCOR, 6699th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2032 (2011) (22 December 2011) at preambular para. 4; UN Security Council, Resolution 2047 (2012), UN SCOR, 6773rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2047 (2012) (17 May 2012) at preambular para. 5; UN Security Council, Resolution 2063 (2012), UN SCOR, 6819th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2063 (2012) (31 July 2012) at preambular para. 4; UN Security Council, Resolution 2075 (2012), UN SCOR, 6864th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2075 (2012) (16 November 2012) at preambular para. 5; UN Security Council, Resolution 2104 (2013), UN SCOR, 6970th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2104 (2013) (29 May 2013) at preambular para. 5; UN Security Council, Resolution 2109 (2013), UN SCOR, 6998th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2109 (2013) (11 July 2013) at preambular para. 19; UN Security Council, Resolution 2113 (2013), UN SCOR, 7013th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2113 (2013) (30 July 2013) at preambular para. 4; UN Security Council, Resolution 2126 (2013), UN SCOR, 7067th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2126 (2013) (25 November 2013) at preambular para. 5.

  734. 734.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1911 (2010), UN SCOR, 6267th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1911 (28 January 2010) at preambular para. 10; UN Security Council, Resolution 1933 (2010), UN SCOR, 6350th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1933 (2010) (30 June 2010) at preambular para. 9; UN Security Council, Resolution 1946 (2010), UN SCOR, 6402nd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1946 (2010) (15 October 2010) at preambular para. 6; UN Security Council, Resolution 1962 (2010), UN SCOR, 6458th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1962 (2010) (20 December 2010) at preambular para. 18; UN Security Council, Resolution 1975 (2011), UN SCOR, 6508th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1975 (2011) (30 March 2011) at preambular para. 9; UN Security Council, Resolution 1980 (2011), UN SCOR, 6525th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1980 (2011) (28 April 2011) at preambular para. 7; UN Security Council, Resolution 2000 (2011), UN SCOR, 6591st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2000 (2011) (27 July 2011) at preambular para. 19; UN Security Council, Resolution 2045 (2012), UN SCOR, 6761st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2045 (2012) (26 April 2012) at preambular para. 13; UN Security Council, Resolution 2062 (2012), UN SCOR, 6817th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2062 (2012) (26 July 2012) at preambular para. 13; UN Security Council, Resolution 2101 (2013), UN SCOR, 6953rd Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2101 (2013) (25 April 2013) at preambular para. 15.

  735. 735.

    See UN Security Council, Protection of civilians in armed Conflict: Aide Memoire. For the consideration of issues pertaining to the protection of civilians in armed conflict, UN SCOR, 6427th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2010/25 (22 November 2010), Annex, at 3.

  736. 736.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1564 (2004), UN SCOR, 5040th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1564 (2004) (18 September 2004) at preambular para. 10.

  737. 737.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1679 (2006), UN SCOR, 5439th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1679 (16 March 2006) at preambular para. 2.

  738. 738.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1593 (2005), UN SCOR, 5158th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1706 (2005) (31 March 2005) at preambular para. 2.

  739. 739.

    See Slovakia, Statement in the Security Council on reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5520th Mtg., 11 September 2006, UN Doc. S/PV.5520, 14 at 14 (arguing that the United Nations had “a responsibility, which was confirmed by our leaders in last year’s world summit outcome document, to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity”).

  740. 740.

    See only United Nations, UN Secretary-General’s Special Advisers on the Prevention of Genocide and the Responsibility to Protect on the Situation in Côte d’Ivoire, 29 December 2010, online: United Nations <http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/adviser/pdf/Special%20Advisers%27%20Statement%20on%20Cote%20d%27Ivoire,%2029 %20.12.2010.pdf> (reminding all parties in Côte d’Ivoire of their responsibility to protect and to prevent the commission of genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity); United Nations, Press Release: UN Secretary-General Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Francis Deng, and Special Adviser on the Responsibility to Protect, Edward Luck, on the Situation in Libya, 22 February 2011, online: UN Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide <http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/adviser/pdf/OSAPG,%20Special%20Advisers%20Statement%20on%20Libya,%2022 %20February%202011.pdf> (reminding the Libyan authorities of their primary responsibility to protect); United Nations, Press Release: Special Advisers of the United Nations Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide, Francis Deng, and on the Responsibility to Protect, Edward Luck, on the situation in Syria, 2 June 2011, online: UN Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide <http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/adviser/pdf/OSAPG%20statement%20Syria%202%20June%202011%20FINAL%20ENGLISH.pdf>; United Nations, Press Release: Special Advisers of the United Nations Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide, Francis Deng, and on the Responsibility to Protect, Edward Luck, on the situation in Syria, 21 July 2011, online: UN Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide <http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/adviser/pdf/OSAPG%20statement%20Syria%2022%20July%202011%20FINAL.pdf> (reminding the Syrian government of its responsibility to protect its population).

  741. 741.

    See United Nations, Press Release: The UN Secretary-General’s Special Advisers on the Prevention of Genocide, Francis Deng, and on the Responsibility to Protect, Edward Luck, urge immediate action to end violence in Syria, 10 February 2012, online: UN Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide <http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/adviser/pdf/OSAPG%20statement%20Syria%2022%20July%202011%20FINAL.pdf>.

  742. 742.

    See United Nations, Press Release: Marking a full year of violent suppression of anti-government protests in Syria, the United Nations Secretary-General’s Special Advisers on the Prevention of Genocide, Francis Deng, and on the Responsibility to Protect, Edward Luck, release the following statement, 15 March 2012, online: UN Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide <http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/adviser/pdf/Statement%20on%20Syria%2015%20March%20FINAL%20EN.pdf>; United Nations, Press Release: Statement of the Special Advisers of the Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide and on the Responsibility to Protect on the situation in Syria, 14 June 2012, online: UN Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide <http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/adviser/pdf/14%20June%20Statement%20-%20English.pdf>.

  743. 743.

    See UN Security Council, Press Statement on Libya, UN Doc. SC/10180 – AFR/2120 (22 February 2011) (calling on the Libyan government to meet its responsibility to protect its population).

  744. 744.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1970 (2011), UN SCOR, 6491st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1970 (26 February 2011), preamble at para. 9; UN Security Council, Resolution 1973 (2011), UN SCOR, 6498th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1973 (17 March 2011), preamble at para. 4.

  745. 745.

    See UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN SCOR, 7039th Mtg., UN Doc. S/PRST/2013/15 (2 October 2013) at para. 9.

  746. 746.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 2139 (2014), UN SCOR, 7116th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/2139 (2014) (22 February 2014) at op. para. 9.

  747. 747.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 67/262, UN GAOR, 67th Sess., 80th Plen. Mtg. (15 May 2013) at op. para. 4.

  748. 748.

    See UN General Assembly Third Committee, Situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic, UN Doc. A/C.3/68/L.42/Rev.1 (19 November 2013) at op. para. 5.

  749. 749.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 67/262, UN GAOR, 67th Sess., 80th Plen. Mtg. (15 May 2013) at op. para. 4.

  750. 750.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1970 (2011), UN SCOR, 6491st Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1970 (26 February 2011), preamble at para. 6; UN Security Council, Resolution 1973 (2011), UN SCOR, 6498th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1973 (17 March 2011), preamble at para. 7.

  751. 751.

    See UN Security Council, Resolution 1973 (2011), UN SCOR, 6498th Mtg., UN Doc. S/Res/1973 (17 March 2011) at paras. 7, 16.

  752. 752.

    See Council of the League of Arab States, The outcome of the Council of the League of Arab States meeting at the Ministerial level in its extraordinary session on the implications of the current events in Libya and the Arab position, Resolution No. 7360, 12 March 2011, online: International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect <http://responsibilitytoprotect.org/Arab%20League%20Ministerial%20level%20statement%2012%20march%202011%20-%20english%281%29.pdf> at op. para. 1.

  753. 753.

    See UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Secretary-General says Security Council action on Libya affirms international community’s determination to protect civilians from own Government’s violence, 17 March 2011, UN Doc. SG/SM/13454, online: United Nations <http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/sgsm13454.doc.htm> (calling Resolution 1973 (2011) a “historic decision” that “affirms, clearly and unequivocally, the international community’s determination to fulfil its responsibility to protect civilians from violence perpetrated upon them by their own Government”).

  754. 754.

    See UN General Assembly, The situation in the Syrian Arab Republic, GA Res. 66/253 B, UN GAOR, 66th Sess., 124th Plen. Mtg. (3 August 2012) at preambular paras. 14 and 16.

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    Andreas S. Kolb

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Kolb, A.S. (2018). Security Council Practice on Atrocity Crime Prevention Since the End of the Cold War. In: The UN Security Council Members' Responsibility to Protect. Beiträge zum ausländischen öffentlichen Recht und Völkerrecht, vol 274. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-55644-3_6

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