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Access to Information Under the Federal Freedom of Information Act in the United States

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The Right of Access to Public Information

Abstract

The federal Freedom of Information Act in the United States is one of the oldest in the world. In Sects. 2–5, United States District Court Judge Peter J. Messitte describes the history of the law and sets out its structure. Although a portion of the law requires that Government make public administrative rules and regulations, this chapter focuses on the process by which persons make requests for information. In this context, that process and the review of rejections of requests emphasize the importance of judicial review of these rejections by Government officials. For this reason, this chapter does not consider obligations imposed in the last two decades that place affirmative obligations on the government to disseminate information.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See the Presidential Memorandum “For Heads of Departments and Agencies – Transparency and Open Government” from 21.01.2009 (First Day in Office), weblink: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/11/16/memorandum-transparency-and-open-government (Accessed on 14 February 2017).

  2. 2.

    Collaboration on government secrecy, website: https://www.wcl.american.edu/lawandgov/cgs/ (Accessed on 14 February 2017).

  3. 3.

    Administrative Procedure Act § 3, 60 Stat. 238, 1946. The website on the Freedom of Information act Contains current sources within government regarding the FOIA. www.foia.gov (Accessed on 14 February 2017).

  4. 4.

    5 U.S.C. § 552.

  5. 5.

    In U.S. Supreme Court, Chrysler Corporation v. Brown, 441 U.S. 281 (Judgment of 18 April 1979), the Supreme Court held that FOIA was a disclosure statute and did not create mandatory bars to disclosure.

  6. 6.

    In these instances, classification orders and the Privacy Act, respectively, bar release and limit the discretion of agencies to release documents that fall under one of the exemptions.

  7. 7.

    5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(4)(b).

  8. 8.

    This power of federal judges reflects the historical distinctions in English law between courts of law and courts of equity. Court of equity granted relief such as injunctions and established standards for the provision of this discretionary relief.

  9. 9.

    The website of the Collaboration on Government Secrecy contains history of the exemptions. Another important resource containing a description of judicial decisions addressing the exemptions is the United States Department of Justice , Freedom of Information Guide and Privacy Act Overview (2009). An online version is at https://www.justice.gov/oip/department-justice-freedom-information-act-reference-guide (Accessed on 14 February 2017).

  10. 10.

    U.S. Supreme Court, EPA v. Mink, 410 U.S. 73 (Judgment of 22 January 1973).

  11. 11.

    The Conference Committee Report regarding the 1974 amendments of the (b)(1) exemption states that the language, “in fact properly classified pursuant to an executive order” was added to emphasize that judicial review of classifications under the exemption would be de novo, see House of Representatives Report No. 1380, 93rd Congress, 2nd Session (1974).

  12. 12.

    This Report is commonly referred to as the “Church Committee Report” after its chairperson Senator Frank Church. Senate Report No. 94-755 (1976).

  13. 13.

    U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, Center of National Security Studies v. U.S. Department of Justice, 331 F.3d 918 (Judgment of 17 June 2003).

  14. 14.

    An academic conference sponsored in April 2011 by the Collaboration on Government Secrecy, “Protection of Homeland Security Information,” is available on the CGS website.

  15. 15.

    Davis (1970), § 3A.

  16. 16.

    U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, Crooker v. ATF, 789 F.2d 64 (Judgment of 29 April 1986).

  17. 17.

    U.S. Supreme Court, Milner v. Department of the Navy, 131 S.Ct. 1259 (Judgment of 7 March 2011).

  18. 18.

    U.S. Supreme Court, FAA Administrator v. Robertson, 422 U.S. 255 (Judgment of 24 June 1975).

  19. 19.

    House of Representatives Report No. 94-880, 1976.

  20. 20.

    See the website of the Collaboration on Government Secrecy, https://www.wcl.american.edu/lawandgov/cgs/ (Accessed on 14 February 2017).

  21. 21.

    Executive Order 12,600, 1987.

  22. 22.

    A discussion of the relationship between these views of the bureaucracy and the deliberative process privilege, in particular, and of federal information policy can be found in Vaughn 1994, p. 467 et seqq.

  23. 23.

    Vaughn 1994, p. 470–472.

  24. 24.

    Frug 1984, p. 1276, 1326–1328.

  25. 25.

    See generally, Berg et al. 2005, describing the agencies to which the Act applies.

  26. 26.

    U.S. Supreme Court, EPA v. Mink, 410 U.S. 73 (Judgment of 22 January 1973).

  27. 27.

    U.S. Supreme Court, NLRB v. Sears, Roebuck and Company, 421 U.S. 132 (Judgment of 28 April 1975).

  28. 28.

    See Federal Rules Civil Procedure 26(b)(6).

  29. 29.

    5 U.S.C. § 552(b)(7)(C). A discussion, infra, considers the law enforcement exemption.

  30. 30.

    Davis 1967, p. 761 et seqq.

  31. 31.

    U.S. Supreme Court, Federal Communications Commission, et al. v. AT&T Inc., et al., 131 S. Ct. 1177 (Judgment of 1 March 2011).

  32. 32.

    U.S. Supreme Court, U.S. Department of Justice v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, 489 U.S. 749 (Judgment of 22 March 1989).

  33. 33.

    U.S. Supreme Court, National Archives and Records Administration v. Favish, 541 U.S. 157 (Judgment of 30 March 2004).

  34. 34.

    U.S. Supreme Court, National Archives and Records Administration v. Favish, 541 U.S. 174 (Judgment of 30 March 2004).

  35. 35.

    U.S. Supreme Court, U.S. Department of State v. Ray, 502 U.S. 164 (Judgment of 16 December 1991).

  36. 36.

    U.S. Supreme Court, U.S. Department of State v. Ray, 502 U.S. 178 et seq. (Judgment of 16 December 1991).

  37. 37.

    U.S. Supreme Court, U.S. Department of State v. Ray, 502 U.S. 180 (Judgment of 16 December 1991).

  38. 38.

    U.S. Supreme Court, U.S. Department of Defense, et al. v. Federal Labor Relations Authority, et al., 510 U.S. 487 (Judgment of 23 February 1994).

  39. 39.

    Freedom of Information Reform Act of 1986, Pub. L. No. 97-570 §1802.

  40. 40.

    See generally, Levi 1948.

  41. 41.

    U.S. Supreme Court, Milner v. Department of the Navy, 131 S.Ct. 1259 (Judgment of 7 March 2011).

  42. 42.

    U.S. Supreme Court, Tax Analysts v. Department of Justice, 429 U.S. 136 (Judgment of 23 June 1989).

  43. 43.

    U.S. Supreme Court, Tax Analysts v. Department of Justice, 429 U.S. 136, 156 (Judgment of 23 June 1989).

  44. 44.

    U.S. Supreme Court, John Doe v. John Doe Corp., 493 U.S. 146, 164 (Judgment of 11 December 1989).

  45. 45.

    U.S. Supreme Court, U.S. Department of Justice v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, 489 U.S. 749 (Judgment of 22 March 1989).

  46. 46.

    U.S. Supreme Court, Department of Justice v. Landano, 508 U.S. 165 (Judgment of 24 May 1993).

  47. 47.

    U.S. Supreme Court, U.S. Department of Justice v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, 489 U.S. 749, 780-81 (Judgment of 22 March 1989; Blackmum, dissenting).

  48. 48.

    U.S. Supreme Court, John Doe v. John Doe Corp., 493 U.S. 146 (Judgment of 11 December 1989).

  49. 49.

    U.S. Supreme Court, John Doe v. John Doe Corp., 493 U.S. 157 (Judgment of 11 December 1989).

  50. 50.

    “The processes of government touch every aspect of our lives, every day. From the food we eat to the cars we drive, to the air we breathe, Federal agencies constantly monitor, regulate and control. . . . The Freedom of Information Act guarantees citizen access to a vast storehouse of information.” Freedom of Information Act and Amendments of 1974 (P.L. 93-502). Source Book: Legislative History, Text and Other Documents, Committee on Government Operations, U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary States Senate, 94. Congress (P.L. 93-502), 1st Session 284-85 (Chapter VI: House and Senate Debates on Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1974) (comments of Senator Edward Kennedy).

  51. 51.

    Scalia (1982). Scalia stated, “The Freedom of Information Act is the Taj Mahal of the Doctrine of Unanticipated Consequences, the Sistine Chapel of Cost-Benefit Analysis ignored.”

  52. 52.

    U.S. Supreme Court, John Doe v. John Doe Corp., 493 U.S. 146, 161 (Judgment of 11 December 1989; Scalia, dissenting).

  53. 53.

    U.S. Supreme Court, John Doe v. John Doe Corp., 493 U.S. 164 (Judgment of 11 December 1989, 1989).

  54. 54.

    U.S. Supreme Court, Milner v. Department of the Navy, 131 S. Ct. 1259 (Judgment of 7 March 2011).

  55. 55.

    Griffin Bell, Attorney General’s Letter, May 7, 1977; William French Smith, Attorney General’s Memo on FOIA, May 4, 1981; Janet Reno, Attorney General Reno’s FOIA Memorandum , October 4, 1993; John Ashcroft, Memorandum for Heads of All Federal Departments and Agencies, October 12, 2001; William Holder, Memorandum for Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies, March 19, 2009. These memoranda maybe found on the website of the Collaboration on Government Secrecy: http://www.wcl.american.edu/lawandgov/CGS.

  56. 56.

    Vaughn 1984, p. 185 et seqq., describing administrative schemes in Connecticut and New York.

  57. 57.

    A thorough examination of the Office of Government information Services can be found at http://www.c-span.org/programAUW (Accessed on 16 March 2011).

  58. 58.

    See generally, White 2003, p. 63–113 (describing the intellectual foundations of legal realism).

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List of Cases

  • United States Supreme Court 22.01.1973, Environmental Protection Agency v. Mink, 410 U.S. 73

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  • United States Supreme Court 28.04.1975, National Labor Relations Board v. Sears, Roebuck and Company, 421 U.S. 132

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  • United States Supreme Court 24.06.1975, Federal Aviation Administration v. Robertson, 422 U.S. 255

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  • United States Supreme Court 22.03.1989, U.S. Department of Justice v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, 489 U.S. 749

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  • United States Supreme Court 23.06.1989, Tax Analysts v. Department of Justice, 429 U.S. 136

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  • United States Supreme Court 11.12.1989, John Doe v. John Doe Corporation, 493 U.S. 146

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  • United States Supreme Court 16.12.1991, U.S. Department of State v. Ray, et al., 502 U.S. 164

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  • United States Supreme Court 24.05.1993, Department of Justice v. Landano, 508 U.S. 165

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  • United States Supreme Court 23.02.1994, U.S. Department of Defense, et al. v. Federal Labor Relations Authority, et al., 510 U.S. 487

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  • United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit 17.06.2003, Center for National Security Studies v. U.S. Department of Justice, 331 F.3d 918

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  • United States Supreme Court 01.03.2011, Federal Communications Commission, et al. v. American Telephone and Telegraph Inc., et al., 131 S. Ct. 1177

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. American University, Washington, DC, USA

    Robert G. Vaughn

  2. United States District Court, Greenbelt, MD, USA

    Peter J. Messitte

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  1. Robert G. Vaughn
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Correspondence to Robert G. Vaughn .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty for Economics, Law and Social Science, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany

    Hermann-Josef Blanke

  2. School of Law, Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Brazil

    Ricardo Perlingeiro

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Vaughn, R.G., Messitte, P.J. (2018). Access to Information Under the Federal Freedom of Information Act in the United States. In: Blanke, HJ., Perlingeiro, R. (eds) The Right of Access to Public Information. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-55554-5_4

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